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Author: 


Thompson,  Eliza  Bailey 


Title: 


Cotton  and  linen 


Place: 


New  York 

Date: 

1922 


q^-^;^nis>;;. 


MASTER   NEGATIVE   # 


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business 

264,53 

T37 


Thompson,  Eliza  Bailey,  1864- 

...  Cotton  and  linen,  by  Eliza  B.  Thompson  ...    New 
York,  The  Ronald  press  company,  1922. 

xix,  199  p.     front.,  illus..  plates.     19^"'.     (Merchandise  manual  series) 
*'Books  for  reference":  p.  189-190. 


1.  Cotton  growing  and  manufacture.    2.  Linen.        i.  Title. 


Library  of  Congress 
Copyright    A  677531 


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HFS461.M4    vol.4 


22-14270 


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MERCHANDISE 

MANUAL 

SERIES 


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THOMPSON 


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LIBRARY 


School  of  Business 


MERCHANDISE  MANUAL  SERIES 


COTTON  AND  LINEN 


BY 

ELIZA  B.  THOMPSON 

Instructor  in  Salesmanship,  High  School,  New  Haven.  Conn.; 

formerly  Store  Teacher,  Stem  Brothers,  New  York  City,  and 

A.  I.  Namm  &  Son,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.;  Instructor  of  Textile 

Merchandise  Courses,  New  York  Univereity 


NEW  YORK 
THE  RONALD  PRESS  COMPANY 

1922 


INTENTIONAL  SECOND  EXPOSURE 


MERCHANDISE  MANUAL  SERIES 


COTTON  AND  LINEN 


BY 


ELIZA  B.  THOMPSON 

Instructor  in  Salesmanship,  High  School,  New  Haven,  Conn.- 

formerly  Store  Teacher,  Stern  Brothers,  New  York  City,  and 

A.  I.  Namm  &  Son,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.;  Instructor  of  Textile 

Merchandise  Courses,  New  York  University 


NEW  YORK 
THE  RONALD  PRESS  COMPANY 

1922 


Copyright,  1917,  by 
The  Ronald  Press  Company 


Copyright,  1922,  by 

The  Ronald  Press  Company 

AU  rights  reserved 


.y 


154-.  53 


T3  7 


Zfiii  Attita  in  Sebitateb 

to  Mrs.  Henry  Ollesheimer,  Miss 
Virginia  Potter,  and  Miss  Anne 
Morgan,  who  desiring  to  give 
greater  opportunity  for  advance- 
ment to  commercial  employees  and 
believing  that  all  business  eflficiency 
must  rest  upon  a  solid  foundation 
of  training  and  education  gave 
years  of  enthusiastic  service  to  the 
testing  of  this  belief. 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE 


MERCHANDISE  MANUAL  SERIES 

EDITOR  OF   SERIES 

BEULAH  ELFRETH  KENNARD,  M.A. 

Formerly  Director  of  Department  Store  Courses.  New  York 

Un^ersity;  Clmirman  of  Committee  on  Merchandise  Courses 

fo?  nIw  YOTk   City   Public  Schools;    Educational   Director, 

Department  Store  Education  Association 

CONSULTING  EDITOR 

LEE  GALLOWAY,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Commerce  and  Industry,  Head  of  Department 
«/  Manaaement  and  formerly  Director  of  Training  School 
for  AachS  of  Retail  Selling.  New  York  University: 
fSJmJrly  Educational  Director,,  the  National  Commercial 
'  Gas  Association 


As  "Department  Store  Merchandise  Manuals"  these 
books  were  originally  written  for  salespeople  and  were 
designed  to  give  them  reliable  information  concerning 
the  sources  and  manufacturing  processes  of  the  mer- 
chandise which  they  handle.  When  it  was  necessary 
to  deal  with  scientific  or  historical  material  it  was 
treated  as  simply  and  concretely  as  possible  and  the 
pomt  of  view  taken  was  that  of  business  rather  than 
that  of  the  school  or  laboratory.  In  this  form  they 
have  proved  their  practical  value  not  only  to  the  de- 
partment store  salesperson  but  in  the  specialty  shop 
It  has  been  pointed  out,  however,  that  the  material  has 
a  wider  scope  than  that  of  sales  manuals  alone 

As  reference  books,  librarians  will  find  the  short 
clear  statements  and  full  indexes  invaluable. 

As  an  encyclopaedia  of  merchandise  the  series  con- 
tains scientific  information  in  a  simple,  compact  form 
which  makes  it  available  for  children  and  others  to 
whom  the  subjects  treated  are  unfamiliar 

As  textbooks  they  are  adapted  for  use  in  commercial 
schools,  high  schools,  night  schools,  settlement  classes 
and  by  teachers  of  household  arts  and  domestic  science' 


VI 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE 


As  source  books  for  practical  story-telling,  kinder- 
gartners,  primary  and  vacation  school  teachers  will 
find  in  them  an  abundance  of  interesting  material  for 
short  "true"  stories  on  the  various  industries  and  crafts 
the  manufacture  of  household  articles,  such  as  pins 
and  needles,  as  well  as  the  making  of  pottery 
glass,  and  steel.  These  manuals  contain  just  the 
material  often  hunted  for  in  vain  by  teachers  and 
librarians. 

As  household  helps  and  shopping  guides  the  young 
housekeeper  will  find  the  manuals  her  best  friends  be- 
cause  they  not  only  describe  the  manufacturing  pro- 
cesses  but  tell  her  how  to  distinguish  well-made  articles 
of  good  materials  from  the  inferior  and  badly  made 
They  also  tell  her  how  to  care  for  the  clothing  or 
household  goods  which  she  has  bought. 

For  salespeople  and  storekeepers  they  supply  the 
general  and  specific  information  about  their  merchan- 
dise  which  is  indispensable  to  efficiency,  yet  very 
hard  to  gather  from  the  scattered  sources  upon  which 
they  now  depend. 

These  changes  should  enlarge  the  usefulness  of  the 
manuals  without  losing  any  of  their  specific  value  in 
the  field  of  salesmanship. 

We  wish  to  express  our  grateful  appreciation  to  the 
manufacturers  and  experts  who  have  given  us  such 
valuable  counsel  and  cordial  co-operation. 

Beulah  Elfreth  Kennard. 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE 

Textiles  comprise  a  large  part  of  the  merchandise  in 
common  use.  Purchasers  as  well  as  salespeople  therefore 
should  know  how  cotton  is  grown  and  picked,  how  it  is 
manufactured  into  cloth,  and  especially  should  understand 
the  finishing  processes  which  make  one  cotton  material 
differ  from  another.  Otherwise  they  cannot  judge  quali- 
ties and  values. 

Linen  should  be  studied  in  the  same  way,  from  flax  to 
table  linen,  or  other  fine  material. 

As  these  two  vegetable  fibers  are  alike  in  so  many  ways 
and  are  sold  and  used  for  the  same  purposes  they  may 
well  be  studied  together.  This  manual  includes  the  prin- 
cipal departments  in  which  cotton  and  linen  are  found, 
except  the  upholstery  and  curtains,  the  laces,  and  the 
ready-to-wear  departments  which  need  special  treatment. 

Thanks  are  due  to  Dr.  Paul  Nystrom,  the  author  of 
"Textiles,"  Miss  L.  R.  Balderston,  and  Mrs.  Ellen  B. 
McGowan  of  Teachers'  College,  and  to  James  Mc- 
Cutcheon  and  Company  for  valuable  help  and  criticisms. 
For  illustrations  thanks  are  due  to  The  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  The  American  Museum  of 
Natural  History,  James  McCutcheon  and  Company,  The 
Spool  Cotton  Company,  and  The  York  Street  Flax  Spin- 
ning Company. 

Eliza  B.  Thompson. 
vu 


i  \ 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 


PART  I  —  THE  COTTON  GOODS 
DEPARTMENT 


I    Introductory 

Uses  of  Cotton  Goods 
Divisions  of  the  Department 
Cotton  Yard  Goods 

II    Sources  and  Cultivation  of  Cotton 

Importance  of  Cotton 

Conditions  Necessary  for  Cultivation  of  Cotton 

United  States  the  Chief  Source  of  Supply 

Varieties  of  American  Cotton 

Egyptian  Cotton 

Peruvian  Cotton 

Indian  Cotton 

Other  Sources  of  Supply 

Properties  of  Cotton 

Cotton  Growing 

Cotton  Picking 

Cotton  Ginning 

Baling 

Marketing 

Grading 

The  Cotton  Exchange 

Spot  Sales  and  Future  Sales 

III    Spinning  .... 

Processes  of  Manufacture 

Spinning 

Origin  of  the  Art  of  Spinning 

ix 


PAGE 

I 


H 


CONTENTS 


CONTENTS 


XI 


CHAPTSI 


Hand  Spinning 

The  Spindle 

The  Distaflf 

Hand  Cards 

Spinning  Wheels 

Inventions  of  Spinning  Machines 

The  Industrial  Revolution 

Samuel  Slater 

Spinning  in  the  Mill 

Sizes  or  Counts  of  Yarns 


rAd 


CHAPTEB 


IV    Weaving    . 


Definition 

Origin 

The  Primitive  Loom 

The  Upright  or  Vertical  Loom 

The  Hand  Loom 

Parts  of  the  Hand  Loom 

The  Flying  Shuttle 

The  First  Power  Loom 

The  Jacquard  Loom 

The  Power  Loom  in  the  United  States 

Weaving  Processes 

Inspecting 


.  26 


Imitations  of  Wool 
Names  of  Imitation  Goods 
Tests  for  Cotton  Materials 
Cotton  Under  the  Microscope 

VII    Color  and  Design  in  Cotton  Fabrics 

Importance  of  Color  Arrangement 
Effect  of  Colors  Upon  Each  Other 
Effect  of  Artificial  Light  on  Colors 
Color  Combinations 
Reproducing  the  Design 
Other  Effects 


PAGE 


V    Finishing 


Importance  of  Finishing  Processes 

Outline  of  the  Processes 

Mercerization 

Discovery  of  Mercerization 

Process  of  Mercerization 

Difference  between  Mercerization  and  Calendering 

VI    Mixtures,    Adulterations,   Imitations, 


34 


45 


and  Tests  for  Cotton 

Mixtures 
Adulterations 
Imitations 
Imitations  of  Linen 
Imitations  of  Silk 


39 


VIII    Dyes  and  Dyeing 

Origin 

Natural  Dyes 

Animal  Dyes 

Vegetable  Dyes 

Mineral  Dyes 

Artificial  or  Aniline  Dyes 

Direct  Cotton  Dyes  (Substantive  Dyes) 

Sulphur  Dyes 

Mordant  Dyeing 

Vat  Dyes 

Methods  of  Dyeing 

The  Dyeing  Process 

Printing 

Block  Printing 

Machine  Printing 

Direct  Printing 

Discharge 

Resist 

Thickened  Dyes 

IX    Cotton  Fabrics 

Classification 
Batiste 
Calico 
Cambric 
Canton  Flannel 


50 


.    6x 


« 1 


XIS 

CHAPTER 


CONTENTS 


CONTENTS 


Challis 

Chambray 

Cheese-Cloth 

Corduroy 

Crepe  or  Crepon 

Damask  (Cotton) 

Denim 

Dimity 

Drilling 

Duck  (Cotton) 

Flannelette 

Galatea 

Gingham 

Huckaback  (Cotton) 

India  Linen 

Indian  Head 

Jaconet 

Khaki 

Lawn 

Linon 

Long  Cloth 

Madras 

Marquisette 

Mull 

Mosquito  Netting 

Muslin 

Nainsook 

Organdy 

Osnaburg 

Outing  Flannel 

Percale 

Piqu6 

Poplin 

Ratine 

Shirting 

Swiss 

Tarlatan 

Terry  Cloth 

Ticking 
Tucking 
Velveteen 
Voile 


PAGE 


CHAPTER 


X    The  Lining  Counter 

Attractiveness  of  Linings 

Varieties  of  Linings 

Buckram 

Cambric 

Canvas 

Crinoline 

Drilling 

Farmer's  Satin 

Interlining 

Percaline 

Quilted  Lining 

Sateen 

Silesia 

Wadding 

Wigan 


Xlli 

PAGE 

77 


XI 


XII 


History  and  Centers  of  Cotton  Indus- 
^TRY g^ 

History  of  Cotton 
Cotton  in  America 
Centers  of  the  Cotton  Industry 

Classification    of    Stock    of    Cotton 
Goods  Departments g^ 


PART  II  —  THE  LINEN  DEPARTMENTS 

XIII  Introductory Oq 

Linen  Display 

Divisions  of  the  Department 

XIV  Sources  and  Preparation  of  Linen  for 

Manufacture qj 

Sources 

Characteristics  of  Linens  from  Various  Sources 
Properties  of  Linen 


XIV 
CHAPTER 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 


The  Flax  Plant 

Harvesting 

Processes   for  Removing  the  Fiber 

Rippling  or  Threshing 

Retting  (or  Rotting) 

Drying 

Breaking 

Scutching 

XV    Process  of  Manufacture 98 

Spinning  Processes  —  Line  Spinning 

Roughing 

Hackling 

Sorting 

Spreading 

Drawing  and  Roving 

Spinning 

Weaving  Process 

Principal  Weaves 

Weaving  Machines 

Finishing  Processes 

Bleaching 

Grades  of  Bleaching 

Beetling 

Calendering 

XVI    Other  Vegetable  Fibers 105 

Varieties 

Ramie  and  China  Grass 

Preparation  of  Ramie 

Jute 

Preparation  of  Jute 

Hemp 

Preiparation  of  Hemp 

XVII    Adulterations  and  Tests  for  Linen    .  no 

Adulterants 

Adulteration  with  Cotton 
Difference  Between  Cotton  and  Linen 
Adulterations  with  Sizingt 


CHAPTEB 


CONTENTS 


Simple  Tests 

Washing  or  Rubbing  Test 

Acid  Test 

Microscope  Test 


XV 


PAGE 


XVIII    Linen  Yard  Goods 

Art  Linen 
Bird's-Eye  Linen 
Butcher's  Linen 
Cambric 
Crash 
Damask 
Diaper  Linen 
Linen  Duck 
Glass  Toweling 
Handkerchief  Linen 
Holland  Linen 
Huckaback 
Linen  Lawn 
Pillow-Case  Linen 
Sheeting 
Toweling 

XIX    Toilet  Linen 


IIS 


120 


Classification 

Towels 

Turkish  Towels 

Wash  Cloths 

Damask  Towel  Design 

Coarse  Towel  Design 

Design  of  Fine  Grades 

Designs  for  Turkish  Towels,  Bath  Mats,  and  Wash 

Cloths 
Plain  Towel  Design 

XX    Bed  Linen 126 

Definitions 
Sheets 
Sheeting 
Mattress  Pads 


XVI 


CONTENTS 


CONTENTS 


xvii 


CHAPTER 


PAGI 


Pillow-Cascs 
Blankets 
Quilts 

Comfortables 
Counterpanes 
Bed  Spreads 
Children's  Spreads 
Sizes  of  Bed  Linen 

XXI    Table  Linen ,     .  133 

Classification 

Table  Cloths 

Napkins 

Tea  Cloths 

Tray  Cloths 

Doilies 

Silence  Cloths 

Asbestos  Pads 

Sizes  of  Table  Linen 

Classification  of  Designs  in  Table  Linen 

DiflSculties  of  Designing 

Method  of  Designing 

Designs  of  Borders 

Designs  for  Other  Table  Linens 


CHAPTER 

XXIV    History  of  Linen 


Ancient  Manufacture 
Medieval  Manufacture 
Introduction  of  Machinery 
Cultivation  in  the  United  States 
Manufacture  in  the  United  States 
Effect  of  European  War 


PAGE 


XXII    Fancy  Linens 

Classification 

Laces 

Embroidery 

Drawn-Work 

Japanese  Sets 

Imitations 


XXIII    The  Handkerchief  Department 

Location 

Handkerchief 

Materials 

Grades  and  Sizes 

Designs  for  Handkerchiefs 

History 

Centers  of  Industry 


143 


146 


PART  III  — SUGGESTIONS  TO  SALES- 
PEOPLE AND  CUSTOMERS 

XXV    Selling  Suggestions     ......  154 

Arrangement  and  Display 

Materials 

Suggestions  as  to  Care 

Suitability 

Manufacture 

Result  of  Misstatements 

History 

XXVI  Suggestions  to  Purchasers    ....    160 

Considerations  in  Buying  Garments 

Considerations  in  Buying  Household  Goods 

Buying  Good  Cotton  Materials 

Choosing  Between  Cotton  and  Linen 

Adulterations 

The  Historic  Interest  of  Textile  Study 

Uses  of  Cotton  Materials 

XXVII  Laundering    of    Cotton    and    Linen 

Fabrics 168 


Knowledge  of  Laundering 
Primitive  Methods  of  Laundering 
Usual  Method 
Labor-Saving  Devices 
Effect  of  Washing  on  Fibers 
Bleaches 


ZVIU 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 

Cleansing  Materials 

Yellow  and  White  Soaps 

Quality  of  Soap 

Other  Forms  of  Soap 

Substitutes  for  Soap 

Starch 

Recipe  for  Starch 

Bluing 

Kinds  of  Bluing 

Proper  Methods  of  Laundering 

Special  Directions 

XXVIII  Classification  of  Stock  of  Linen  De- 
partment       


PAGE 


179 


Appendix jgc 

Leading  Cotton  Manufacturers  in  the  United  States 
Leading  Linen  Manufacturer! 
Books  for  Reference 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Cotton   Picking Frontispiece 

"^"";"  .         ,  FACING  PACE 

1.  Different  Staples  of  American  Cotton  with  Seeds      .     .      6 

(The  longest  staple  is  Sea  Island  cotton.) 

2.  Cotton  Bolls ^ 

3.  Cotton  Baled  for  Shipping „, 

4.  Flax  Wheel (^n  page)     18 

5.  Mule   Spinners «. 

^ 

6.  Primitive  Loom ^ 

7.  The  Jacquard   Loom jg 

8.  Cotton  and  Flax  Fibers  Under  the  Microscope  (on  page)  43 

9.  Roughing  Flax ^g 

10.  The  Spread  Board ^g 

11.  Grass  Bleaching  of  Linen jq^ 

12.  Designs  in  Table  Cloths ,^ 


COTTON  AND   LINEN 


Part  I— The  Cotton  Goods  Department 


Chapter  I 

INTRODUCTORY 
Uses  of  Cotton  Goods 

A  large  variety  of  materials  is  found  in  the  Cotton 
Goods  Department,  differing  both  in  kind  and  quality. 
These  range  from  the  coarser  fabrics  for  dresses  for 
mommg  wear,  to  the  very  fine  and  sheer  qualities 
especially  desirable  for  young  girls'  graduation  and 
evenmg  dresses. 

There  is  also  the  variety  of  materials  for  under- 
garments from  the  coarser  cottons  to  the  fine  nain- 
sooks and  batistes.  The  fine  materials  are  suitable  for 
infants'  and  children's  wear,  and  the  coarser  materials 
tor  men's  and  boys'  aprons,  etc. 


2  COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 

Since  the  discovery  of  the  mercerization  of  cotton, 
table  clothes  and  napkins  have  been  made  to  imitate 
linen,  and  for  ordinary  household  use,  cotton  is  fast 
taking  the  place  of  linen,  especially  as  during  the  war 
linen  has  been  almost  unobtainable.  Cotton  has  also 
been  treated  so  that  it  will  absorb  moisture,  making  it 
more  suitable  for  toweling  than  formerly. 

Divisions  of  the  Department 

According  to  the  size  of  the  store  and,  consequently 
the  size  of  the  department,  different  divisions  are  made 
in  different  stores.  In  some  large  stores,  the  division 
is  as  follows: 

1.  Domestics,  goods  that  are  made  in  the  United 

States.     These  are  mostly  staples. 

2.  White    Goods,    including   both    imported    and 

domestic  materials. 

3.  Dress  Goods,  including  domestic  and  imported 

materials. 

4.  Linings. 

5.  Flannels. 

6.  Blankets  and  Comfortables. 

Cotton  Yard  Goods 

The  materials  which  belong  in  the  yard  goods 
divisions  include  the  following: 


INTRODUCTORY 


I.  Domestics 
Calico 
Cambric 
Canton  Flannel 
Cheese-Cloth 
Denim 

Galatea 

Gingham 

Lawn 

Longcloth 

Muslin 

Nainsook 

Percale 

Sateen 

Sheeting 

Pillow-Case  Tubing 

2.  White  Goods 
Batiste 
Corduroy 
Crepe 
Dimity 
Flaxen 
Gaberdine 
India  Linen 
Lawn 
Madras 

Marquisette 
Mull 

Organdy 

Persian  Lawn 

Pique 

Poplin 

Swiss 

Voile 


3.  Dress  Goods 
Cheviot 
Chiffon 
Corduroy 
Crepe 

Crepe  de  Chine 
Dimity 
Gingham 
Japanese  Crepe 
Khaki 
Lawn 

Marquisette 
Mull 

Organdy 

Pique 

Poplin 

Swiss 

Voile 

4.  Linings 

Buckram 

Cambric 

Canvas 

Crinoline 

Drilling 

Lawn  (Colored) 

Moreen 

Near-Silk 

Percaline 

Sateen 

Silesia 

Imitations  of  Silk 

Interlinings 

Cotton  Wadding 

Quilted  Linings 

Heatherbloom 


1'^ 


Ill 


)!n 


Chapter  II 

SOURCES  AND  CULTIVATION  OF  COTTON 

Importance  of  Cotton 

Cotton  is  the  most  important  vegetable  fiber,  as  it 
makes  the  cheapest  and  most  useful  of  all  textile  ma- 
terials. 

It  is  the  short,  fluffy  fiber  which  grows  around  and 
is  attached  to  the  seed  of  the  cotton  plant.  These 
fibers  cling  close  together  and  can  be  drawn  out  into 
a  continuous  slender  thread.  Cotton  yam  is  therefore 
an  elongated  mass  of  fibers.  The  strength,  length, 
and  evenness  of  the  fibers  determine  its  value.  The 
fiber  is  known  as  the  staple. 

Conditions  Necessary  for  Cultivation  of  Cotton 

A  long  season  is  needed  for  raising  cotton.  About 
55  degrees  north  and  south  of  the  equator  where  there 
is  a  long  season  of  continuous  warm  weather,  is  the 
range  for  cotton  growing.  Plenty  of  rain  is  required 
during  the  first  part  of  the  season,  and  sunshine  dur- 
ing the  latter  part.  The  humidity  in  the  air,  which 
comes  from  nearness  to  the  sea  affects  the  cotton  so 

4 


CULTIVATION  OF  COTTON  S 

that  it  grows  more  rapidly  and  produces  a  longer  and 
finer  variety  of  fiber. 

United  States  the  Chief  Source  of  Supply 

The  southern  states  of  the  United  States  have  just 
the  right  climate  for  the  successful  growing  of  cotton, 
and  the  result  is  that  the  United  States  produces  three- 
fourths  of  all  the  cotton  used  in  the  world. 

The  states  arranged  in  order  of  production  are: 


Texas 
Mississippi 
Georgia 
Alabama 
Arkansas 
North  Carolina 
South  Carolina 
Louisiana 


Tennessee 

Florida 

Missouri 

Virginia 

Oklahoma 

Kentucky 

California 


Varieties  of  American  Cotton 

There  are  two  principal  varieties  of  cotton  grown 
in  the  United  States :  Sea  Island  and  Upland  cotton. 

Sea  Island  cotton  is  a  long  staple  cotton,  fine  and 
silky.  The  fibers  are  from  i%  to  2%  inches  long. 
Strong  warp  yams  are  made  of  this  cotton.  It  is 
used  chiefly  for  the  finest  lawns  and  muslins  and  for 
spool  cotton. 

Upland  cotton  is  a  short  staple  cotton,  soft  and 


6  COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 

fairly  strong.  The  fibers  are  from  %  to  i%  inches 
long,  or  about  half  the  length  of  the  Sea  Island  cotton. 
This  variety  is  used  for  filling  or  weft  yarns, 
binghams,  calicoes,  sheetings,  and  coarser  materials 
are  made  from  this  cotton.  (See  Figure  i  for  illus- 
trations of  the  different  staples.) 

Egyptian  Cotton 

Egypt  ranks  next  to  the  United  States  in  the  quality 
of  the  cotton  produced  and  much  Egyptian  cotton  is  im- 
ported into  this  country,  as  it  is  better  adapted  to  some 
purposes  than  American  cotton. 

The  fibers  are  long  and  silky,  measuring  from  i% 
to  I A  inches,  but  they  are  not  so  good  in  quality  as 
the  Sea  Island  cotton.  They  are  brown  on  account 
of  the  coloring  matter  in  the  waters  of  the  river  Nile. 
A  system  of  irrigation  is  used  in  Egypt  to  furnish 
moisture  for  the  growth.  It  is  used  in  making  fine 
fabrics,  underwear,  and  hosiery. 

Peruvian  Cotton 

Peru  in  South  America,  because  of  its  favorable 
climate,  long  season,  and  suitable  soil,  grows  a  very 
large  amount  of  cotton. 

The  fibers  are  rough,  harsh,  and  wiry,  fairly  strong 
and  I  to  i^  inches  in  length.  It  resembles  wool  and 
is  used  to  mix  with  wool. 


i 


iMl 

w 

Q 


I 


ii 


l> 


CULTIVATION  OF  COTTON  7 

Indian  Cotton 

India  produces  a  large  amount  of  cotton  which  is 
sent  to  Germany  and  other  parts  of  Europe  and  to 
Japan.  The  fibers  of  Indian  cotton  are  short  and 
coarse,  and  about  %  of  an  inch  long.  It  is  used  for 
low-grade  cloth. 

Other  Sources  of  Supply 

China,  Russia,  and  other  countries  raise  cotton  but 
very  little  is  exported. 

Properties  of  Cotton 
The  distinctive  qualities  of  cotton  are  that  it: 

1.  Burns  easily  on  account  of  natural  oil  and  cellu- 

lose in  the  fiber. 

2.  Soils  easily  on  account  of  short  fibers. 

3.  Does  not  absorb  water  readily  and  dries  slowly 

on  account  of  vegetable  gum  and  oil  in  the 
fi{)er. 

4.  Crushes  readily  because  a  vegetable  fiber. 

5.  Shrinks  because  the  finish  which  pulls  the  fiber 

out  is  loosened  by  water  and  soap  and  the 
fiber  goes  back  to  its  original  twisted  shape. 

6.  Is  non-conductor  of  heat,  therefore  good  for 

summer  underwear. 

7.  May  be  laundered  without  injury  to  the  fibers. 


■ 


8 


COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 


Cotton  Growing 

The  seeds  are  planted  in  March,  April,  or  May, 
frequently  by  machine.  They  are  planted  in  rows, 
close  together.  Later  the  plants  are  thinned  and  left 
from  8  inches  to  14  inches  apart. 

Four  months  are  required  from  the  planting  to  the 
ripening  of  the  seeds.  The  blossom,  which  resembles 
a  hollyhock,  lasts  only  one  day,  during  which  time 
the  color  changes  from  yellow  in  the  morning,  to 
white  at  noon,  and  pink  in  the  evening  when  it  drops 
off.  The  boll  begins  to  form  as  soon  as  the  blossom 
drops  off.  The  plant  blossoms  first  at  the  bottom  and 
from  there  to  the  top.     (See  Figure  2.) 

Cotton  is  sometimes  injured  by  a  wet  season,  an 
early  frost,  or  a  severe  sand  storm.  Insects  such  as 
the  boll-weevil  sometimes  destroy  cotton  crops. 

Cotton  Picking 

Cotton  is  picked  during  the  months  of  July  and 
August,  and  in  the  fall  until  frost  comes.  It  is  usually 
picked  by  hand.  Several  machines  have  been  invented 
for  the  purpose,  but  as  the  bolls  do  not  all  ripen  at 
one  time  a  machine  cannot  be  used  to  advantage.  As 
the  plant  begins  to  blossom  at  the  bottom  and  the 
bolls  form  there  first  ripening  gradually  toward  the 
top,  it  is  necessary  to  go  over  a  field  two  or  even  three 
different  times.     Bolls  which  are  not  ripe  are  often 


CULTIVATION  OF  COTTON 


forced  open  and  sent  on  with  the  ripe  cotton,  but  this 
lowers  the  quality.  Ripe  cotton  when  seen  under  the 
microscope  shows  a  twist  which  lends  itself  readily  to 
the  spinning,  while  the  unripe  fiber  has  no  twist,  will 
not  spin  readily,  is  not  strong,  and  will  not  hold  the 
dye  as  well  as  the  ripe  fiber.  This  mixing  is  done  by 
dishonest  raisers  who  also  sometimes  wet  cotton  to 
make  it  heavier. 

Negroes  (men,  women,  and  children)  are  employed 
in  the  picking  of  cotton,  which  they  take  from  the 
opened  boll  and  put  in  a  bag  hanging  at  their  side. 
When  the  bag  is  full  they  go  to  the  end  of  the  row  of 
plants  and  empty  it  into  a  large  basket.  (See  Frontis- 
piece. ) 

Each  person's  work  is  weighed  and  an  account  kept 
of  it.  Cotton  pickers  work  from  six  o'clock  in  the 
morning  until  six  o'clock  at  night.  Two  hundred 
pounds  is  about  an  average  day's  work  and  they  re- 
ceive from  40  to  50  cents  a  hundred  pounds. 

The  baskets  are  taken  to  the  cotton  house  and  the 
cotton  is  piled  up  in  the  cotton  room.  It  is  then  sent 
to  the  cotton  gin  for  the  removal  of  seeds. 

Cotton  Ginning 

In  this  process,  sharp  knives  or  saws  in  the  machine 
cut  through  the  fibers  and  the  seeds  drop  out.  This 
injures  the  fibers  somewhat. 


II 


10 


COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 


The  Sea  Island  cotton  seeds  are  easier  to  remove 
as  the  cotton  does  not  cling  so  tightly  to  them.  They 
are  black  and  shiny  and  are  removed  by  passing  the 
fibers  between  closely  set  rollers  through  which  the 
seeds  cannot  go. 

The  cotton  gin  was  invented  by  Eli  Whitney  in 
1794,  and  caused  a  wonderful  development  of  the 
cotton  industry. 

Baling 

After  the  seeds  are  removed  the  cotton  is  put  in 
large  bales  of  500  pounds  in  weight.  Egyptian  bales 
weigh  700  pounds.  Each  bale  is  put  under  heavy 
pressure  in  a  hydraulic  press,  until  it  is  reduced  to 
about  half  its  original  size.  Bagging  and  iron  bands 
are  put  around  the  bale  for  protection.  This  becomes 
the  raw  cotton  of  the  market.     (See  Figure  3.) 

Marketing 

When  the  cotton  is  ready  for  market,  it  may  be 
sold  in  various  ways.  The  cotton  farmer  may  sell  to 
some  local  storekeeper  who  makes  a  business  of  buying 
cotton,  or  to  some  local  cotton  buyer  or  factory. 
There  are  also  cotton  dealers  and  brokers,  located  in 
the  larger  cities  to  whom  he  may  sell.  Again  he  may 
sell  to  traveling  buyers  sent  by  cotton  merchants  or 
manufacturers,  or  he  may  sell  direct  to  the  cotton 


INTENTIONAL  SECOND  EXPOSURE 


10 


COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 


The  Sea  Island  cotton  seeds  are  easier  to  remove 
as  the  cotton  does  not  cling  so  tightly  to  them.  They 
are  black  and  shiny  and  are  removed  by  passing  the 
fibers  between  closely  set  rollers  through  which  the 
seeds  cannot  go. 

The  cotton  gin  was  invented  by  Eli  Whitney  in 
1794,  and  caused  a  wonderful  development  of  the 
cotton  industry. 

Baling 

After  the  seeds  are  removed  the  cotton  is  put  in 
large  bales  of  500  pounds  in  weight.  Egyptian  bales 
weigh  700  pounds.  Each  bale  is  put  under  heavy 
pressure  in  a  hydraulic  press,  until  it  is  reduced  to 
about  half  its  original  size.  Bagging  and  iron  bands 
are  put  around  the  bale  for  protection.  This  becomes 
the  raw  cotton  of  the  market.     (See  Figure  3.) 

Marketing 

When  the  cotton  is  ready  for  market,  it  may  be 
sold  in  various  ways.  The  cotton  farmer  may  sell  to 
some  local  storekeeper  who  makes  a  business  of  buying 
cotton,  or  to  some  local  cotton  buyer  or  factory. 
There  are  also  cotton  dealers  and  brokers,  located  in 
the  larger  cities  to  whom  he  may  sell.  Again  he  may 
sell  to  traveling  buyers  sent  by  cotton  merchants  or 
manufacturers,  or  he  may  sell  direct  to  the  cotton 


M 


CULTIVATION  OF  COTTON 


II 


Jf 


spinning  mill,  especially  if  it  is  near  enough  so  that 
the  cotton  may  be  transported  easily. 

Grading 

In  any  case  the  buyer  of  the  cotton  grades  it  by 
examining  the  cotton  in  the  bale,  pulling  out  a  little  for 
this  purpose. 

The  quality  of  the  cotton  depends  upon  the  fineness 
or  coarseness  of  the  fiber,  the  length  of  the  fiber,  and 
its  breaking  strength.  As  each  bale  of  cotton  is  sup- 
posed to  weigh  500  pounds,  it  is  necessary  for  the 
buyer  to  determine  whether  this  weight  is  partly  made 
of  dirt,  leaves,  and  too  much  moisture. 

Dead  or  unripe  fibers,  or  those  damaged  by  frost 
or  insects  lower  the  grade  of  the  cotton.  The  color 
and  luster  of  the  cotton  is  also  considered.  All  these 
things  must  be  taken  into  account  in  determining  the 
grade  of  cotton. 

Mistakes  in  grading  are  possible  because  there  may 
be  many  varieties  of  cotton  in  one  bale  and  the  sample 
may  come  from  the  poorer  or  better  variety. 

The  standard  grades  of  cotton  generally  recognized 
in  the  cotton  markets  are  as  follows  : 

Fair 

Strict  middling  fair 
Middling  fair 
Strict  good  middling 


LL 


"«' 


12  COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 

Good  middling 
Strict  middling 
Middling 

Strict  low  middling 
Strict  good  ordinary, 
Good  ordinary 
Strict  ordinary 
Ordinary 

Cotton  which  is  discolored  is  classed  as  tinged  if 
only  slightly  discolored  or  stained  if  it  has  a  deeper 
color,  as  for  instance,  "  strict  good  ordinary  tinged  " 
or  "good  middling  stained."  Cotton  crops  vary  in 
color;  one  may  be  bright  and  white,  another  creamy, 
another  dingy.  Consequently,  cotton  may  be  said  to 
be  of  "good  color"  meaning  that  while  it  may  not 
be  very  white,  still  it  is  neither  tinged  or  stained. 

The  Cotton  Exchange 

This  IS  a  market-place  or  building  where  cotton  is 
bought  and  sold.  There  are  certain  rules  laid  down 
by  an  association  which  is  made  up  of  cotton  mer- 
chants, local  dealers,  cotton  brokers  and  exporters, 
and  some  cotton  spinners.  These  rules  tell  how  the 
business  is  to  be  conducted  and  the  cotton  graded. 
Much  of  the  cotton  which  is  bought  and  sold  at  the 
exchange  is  never  seen  by  the  cotton  broker. 


CULTIVATION  OF  COTTON 


13 


Spot  Sales  and  Future  Sales 

In  the  cotton  exchange  two  kinds  of  sales  are  made. 
The  spot  sale  calls  for  the  delivery  of  the  cotton  at 
once,  while  with  the  future  sale  the  cotton  is  to  be 
delivered  at  some  future  time.  There  is  the  element 
of  speculation  in  buying  or  selling  for  future  delivery 
as  the  cotton  may  not  even  be  grown  and  much  might 
happen  to  the  crops  before  they  could  be  delivered. 
If  there  is  a  good  crop  and  the  price  of  cotton  goes 
down  the  broker  may  lose,  while  if  there  is  a  poor 
crop  and  a  good  demand  for  cotton,  then  the  price 
will  go  up  and  he  will  make  a  good  profit.  If  he  con- 
cludes that  he  is  likely  to  lose  on  his  deal  he  goes  to 
the  cotton  exchange  and  tries  to  sell  his  contract  at 
as  low  a  price  as  possible,  and  so  the  risk  is  transferred 
to  a  third  party  who  in  turn  may  see  his  mistake  and 
sell  to  another  party  and  so  on.  This  process  is  known 
as  "hedging." 


I 


,v 


Chapter  III 

SPINNING 

Processes  of  Manufacture 

The  manufacture  of  cotton  is  the  leading  industry 
in  the  textile  world.  From  the  time  that  the  raw 
cotton  is  brought  to  the  factory  in  the  bale,  until  the 
goods  are  ready  to  be  sold  in  the  store  the  processes 
of  its  manufacture  may  be  grouped  under  three  heads : 

Spinning 
Weaving 
Finishing 

These  processes  are  not  always  completed  in  one 
place.  Often  the  spinning  is  done  in  one  mill,  the 
weaving  in  another,  and  the  finishing  in  still  another. 
Some  concerns  buy  goods  from  one  factory  "  in  the 
gray,"  which  is  really  unbleached  cotton,  and  engage 
another  factory  to  dye  and  finish  it  for  them. 

Spinning 

Spinning  is  the  drawing  and  twisting  of  fibers  to 
form  a  continuous  thread. 

14 


SPINNING 


15 


Although  the  process  of  spinning  may  seem  very 
complicated  when  we  see  the  machinery  in  a  cotton 
mill,  these  great  machines  are  only  separating  the 
matted  and  tangled  fibers  and  drawing  them  out  into 
a  continuous  strand.  This  strand  is  combed  or  carded 
so  that  the  fibers  may  be  parallel  and  smooth,  and  it 
is  twisted  so  that  it  may  be  strong  for  weaving. 

The  processes  in  the  factory  may  be  better  under- 
stood if  spinning  is  seen  in  its  simpler  form  and  fol- 
lowed through  the  various  stages  of  its  later  develop- 
ment. 

Origin  of  the  Art  of  Spinning 

The  art  of  spinning  is  so  ancient  that  its  origin  is 
unknown.  Wool  and  flax  were  the  first  fibers  used 
for  textiles.  Cotton  was  more  difficult  to  spin  on  ac- 
count of  its  short  fibers  and  was  used  very  little  until 
the  invention  of  machinery  for  spinning. 

The  Egyptians,  Greeks,  and  Chinese  all  claim  the 
discovery  of  the  art  of  spinning,  but  there  is  no  ab- 
solute proof  in  any  case.  It  is  certain  from  pictures 
found  on  Egyptian  tombs  that  flax  was  used  there  at 
a  very  early  time.  The  spinning  of  cotton  by  hand 
was  developed  first  in  India. 

Hand  Spinning 
The  three  processes  of  spinning  are : 


I 


i6 


COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 


Drawing 
Twisting 
Winding 

The  first  spinning  was  done  by  drawing  out  the 
fiber  and  twisting  it  with  the  fingers;  then  winding 
it  on  a  stick  or  a  stone  to  keep  it  from  becoming 
tangled. 

The  Spindle 

The  stick  on  which  the  spun  thread  was  wound  in 
early  times  was  later  called  a  spindle.  By  dropping  it 
with  a  twirling  motion  it  was  made  to  do  the  twisting. 
It  was  soon  found  that  a  full  spindle  revolved  faster 
than  an  empty  one  and  a  piece  of  stone,  clay,  or  metal 
was  attached  to  make  it  revolve  faster  and  twist  better. 
This  weight  was  called  a  whorl. 

The  Distaff 

The  stick  on  which  the  bunch  of  raw  unspun  fibers 
was  placed  was  called  the  distaff.  If  both  hands  were 
to  be  left  free  for  spinning,  it  could  be  held  under  the 
left  arm  or  placed  in  the  girdle. 

This  process  of  spinning  was  used  from  before  the 
dawn  of  history  until  the  fourteenth  century  and  may 
still  be  found  among  primitive  people. 

Hand  Cards 

At  first  the  fibers  were  straightened  by  the  fingers 


SPINNING 


17 


but  this  was  found  to  be  unsatisfactory  and  so  boards 
with  upright  wires  were  used  for  this  purpose.  By 
rubbing  the  wires  of  one  board  against  the  wires  of 
the  other  the  fibers  were  straightened,  cleaned,  and 
made  ready  for  spinning. 

Spinning  Wheels 

The  Great  Wheel  or  Jersey  Wheel.  The  first  and 
simplest  spinning  wheel  was  made  during  the  four- 
teenth century  and  was  used  for  spinning  wool.  It 
consisted  of  a  large  wheel  connected  by  a  band  to  a 
smaller  wheel  which  turned  the  spindle.  The  spindle 
was  in  a  horizontal  position.  The  woman  spinning 
stood  at  the  side  and  turned  the  large  wheel  with  her 
right  hand.  With  her  left  hand  she  drew  out  the 
thread  which  came  twisting  from  the  end  of  the 
spindle;  when  it  was  long  enough  she  stopped  and 
turning  the  wheel  again,  wound  it  on  the  spindle. 
This  wheel  had  no  place  for  the  distaff,  and  it  was 
necessary  to  pick  up  new  fibers  constantly.  Here 
again  are  seen  the  three  processes,  drawing,  twisting, 
and  winding. 

The  Flax  Wheel  or  Saxony  Wheel.  The  flax  wheel 
was  the  next  improvement.  It  was  run  by  foot-power 
and  the  spinner  could  now  twist,  draw,  and  wind  with- 
out stopping  the  wheel.  Around  the  spindle  was  a 
horse  shoe  arrangement  called  a  "  flier  "  which  twisted 


ii 


ii 


i8 


COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 


the  thread  and   on  this  flier 

were  hooks  for  distributing  the 

thread  evenly  on  the  spindle. 

The  distaff  for  holding  the  fiber 

was  now  fastened  to  the  frame. 

The  motion  of  this  wheel  was 

continuous. 

The    thread    made    on    the 

Saxony  wheel  was  drawn  out 

^      „„    ,    and  twisted  better  than  that  on 
Figure  4.    Flax  Wheel     ^,  ^       1      1       a-. 

the  great  wheel.  On  account 
of  its  greater  strength  it  was  used  for  the  warp  or 
foundation  thread  of  cloth,  while  the  thread  from  the 
great  wheel  was  used  for  weft  or  filling. 

These  wheels  were  used  from  the  fourteenth  to  the 
eighteenth  centuries  and  all  yarns  for  clothing  and 
household  materials  were  made  in  this  way. 

Inventions  of  Spinning  Machines 

In  1764  James  Hargreaves  invented  a  machine 
whereby  eleven  spindles  could  be  wound  at  once.  This 
was  based  on  the  principle  of  the  great  wheel,  the 
thread  being  drawn  out  and  twisted  and  afterwards 
wound  on  the  bobbins.  He  named  his  machine  the 
spinning  jenny  using  his  wife*s  name.  This  furnished 
the  weft  or  filling  thread. 

In  1768  Richard  Arkwright  invented  a  machine  on 


SPINNING 


19 


the  principle  of  the  Saxony  wheel.  This  had  rollers 
at  the  top  going  at  different  speeds  for  drawing  out 
the  threads,  and  the  spindles  which  were  at  the  bottom 
of  the  machine  had  the  fliers  for  twisting  the  thread 
as  it  was  wound  on  the  bobbins.  The  machine  was 
run  by  water-power  and  was  called  Arkwright's  water 
frame.     It  furnished  warp  for  the  weavers. 

In  1779  Samuel  Crompton,  a  textile  worker,  in- 
vented a  machine  which  was  a  combination  of  Har- 
greaves' jenny  and  Arkwright's  water  frame  and  was 
called  Crompton's  mule.  With  this  machine  much 
finer  thread  could  be  spun. 

In  1830  Roberts,  by  means  of  an  invention  called 
a  "quadrant,''  succeeded  in  making  the  mule  self- 
acting. 

The  Industrial  Revolution 

These  and  other  inventions  following  one  after  an- 
other during  the  period  from  1750  to  1800  changed 
the  whole  textile  industry.  The  invention  of  the  steam 
engine  by  Watts  in  1769  came  during  this  time,  also 
the  invention  of  the  cotton  gin  by  Eli  Whitney  in  1793. 
Factories  were  built  and  the  spinning  and  weaving  of 
cloth  which  had  always  been  done  in  the  home  was 
transferred  to  the  factory  where  machines  could  be 
used  to  advantage.  These  inventions  were  of  the 
greatest  importance  to  the  cotton  industry  which  de- 
veloped with  wonderful  rapidity. 


20 


COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 


Samuel  Slater 

During  the  years  when  some  of  these  wonderful 
inventions  were  being  made  in  England,  the  United 
States  was  at  war  with  that  country,  fighting  for  her 
independence.  On  account  of  the  war  and  the  fact 
that  laws  were  made  to  prohibit  any  models  or  draw- 
ings from  being  brought  to  this  country,  none  of  the 
inventions  could  be  brought  over,  but  Samuel  Slater 
was  able  to  construct  a  machine  from  memory  as  he 
was  familiar  with  Arkwright's  spinning  frame  in  Eng- 
land. He  was  called  the  father  of  the  textile  industry. 
The  first  machine  was  made  in  Pawtucket,  R.  L,  in 
1790. 

Spinning  in  the  Mill 

The  following  are  the  processes  through  which  the 
raw  cotton  passes  after  being  received  at  the  mill : 

1.  Opening,  The  bale  is  opened.  Iron  bands  and 
burlap  coverings  are  removed. 

2.  Breaking  and  Pulling.  The  cotton  is  broken  and 
pulled  apart.  It  is  put  into  a  machine  which  breaks 
up  the  hard  lumps  of  cotton  and  pulls  the  fibers  apart. 

3.  Mixing.  After  the  cotton  is  opened  up  in  the 
bale-breaker  it  is  mixed  to  form  one  quality  of  cotton. 
This  consists  in  taking  fibers  of  equal  length,  all  of 
the  same  variety,  but  perhaps  different  pickings,  which 
may  not  be  the  same  grade  and  mixing  them  together. 


SPINNING 


21 


4.  Picking  and  Scutching.  The  picking  machines 
loosen  the  matted  fibers  and  beat  out  the  sand,  leaves, 
and  pieces  of  boll,  which  fall  through  a  wire  lattice. 
The  cotton  is  formed  around  the  cylinder  in  a  sheet  or 
"  lap  "  like  cotton  batting. 

The  scutching  machines  continue  the  work  of  clean- 
ing the  fibers.  Four  laps  from  the  picking  machine 
are  fed  to  the  scutcher  and  come  out  as  one  single 
sheet  or  lap,  each  time  cleaner  than  before. 

5.  Carding  and  Combing.  Carding  is  a  very  im- 
portant process  for  it  not  only  cleans  the  cotton  from 
dirt,  sticks,  and  other  impurities  which  have  not  been 
removed  by  previous  processes,  but  disentangles  and 
straightens  the  fibers,  and  lays  them  parallel. 

The  wide  lap  of  cotton,  as  it  comes  from  the  previous 
machine  is  placed  in  the  carding  machine  where  the 
fibers  are  straightened  and  drawn  out  into  a  thin  filmy 
layer  of  cotton  about  forty  inches  wide.  This  sheet 
as  it  comes  out  passes  through  a  sort  of  metal  funnel 
which  condenses  the  lap  into  a  round,  soft  rope  called 
a  sliver.  It  is  about  as  thick  as  a  man's  finger.  As 
this  emerges  from  the  machine  it  is  conveyed  into  a 
device  which  coils  it  into  a  deep  can  called  a  sliver 
can.  When  full  this  can  is  carried  to  the  drawing 
frame. 

If  a  finer  yam  is  required  the  carding  process  is 
repeated.     For  very  fine  yarns  the  sliver  is  taken  to 


i| 


I 


I 


J. 


l! 


2.2 


COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 


the  combing  machine  to  be  combed  before  it  is  sent 
to  the  drawing  frame. 

Combing  is  required  for  all  fine  yams  such  as  are 
made  from  the  long  staple  cotton,  as  Sea  Island  and 
Egyptian  cotton. 

In  this  process  the  slivers  from  several  cans,  eight 
or  ten  or  even  more,  are  united  in  the  combing 
machine  and  at  first  made  into  a  smooth  lap  about  nine 
inches  wide.  This  is  passed  on  to  the  comber  where 
the  fibers  are  thoroughly  combed,  any  impurities  and 
short  fibers  being  removed.  The  lap  is  then  formed 
into  a  sliver  and  taken  to  the  drawing  frame  as  in 
carding.  As  a  result  of  this  process,  the  cotton  is  fine 
and  silky.  All  short  ends  have  been  combed  out,  but 
as  there  is  a  great  deal  of  waste,  it  is  an  expensive 
process  and  only  used  for  the  production  of  the  very 
best  and  finest  yarns,  such  as  are  required  for  sewing 
thread,  fine  grades  of  white  goods,  underwear,  fine 
hosiery,  and  lace  curtains. 

In  recent  years  there  has  been  improvement  in  the 
combing  machines  so  that  short  staple  cotton  may  be 
combed. 

6.  Drawing  and  Doubling.  A  certain  number  of 
slivers  from  the  carding  machine  are  drawn  parallel 
and  united  into  one  sliver  by  means  of  a  series  of 
rollers  which  revolve,  each  set  faster  than  the  one 
preceding  so  that  the  sliver  is  stretched  or  drawn  out 


SPINNING 


23 


continuously.  In  uniting  several  slivers  in  this  way, 
weak  places  are  strengthened  and  the  sliver  is  drawn 
even  and  smooth.  Just  enough  twist  is  put  into  the 
slivers  to  hold  them  together. 

7.  Stubbing,  Intermediate  Stubbing,  and  Roving, 
These  processes  consist  of  drawing  out,  twisting,  and 
winding  on  bobbins.  The  cotton  passes  through  these 
three  machines  in  succession.  They  all  work  on  the 
same  principle  but  as  the  cotton  leaves  each  machine 
it  is  longer,  stronger,  and  finer  until  it  is  ready  for 
spinning. 

8.  Spinning.  In  the  final  process  of  spinning  the 
cotton  roving  is  drawn  out  to  the  required  size  or 
fineness  and  twisted  the  right  number  of  times  for 
the  required  strength  for  the  weaving  of  certain  ma- 
terials. 

There  are  two  methods  of  machine  spinning : 

(a)  Ring  spinning,  which  is  more  rapid  and  is 

used  more  in  cotton  spinning  especially  for 
warp. 

(b)  Mule  spinning,  which  is  the  older  method, 

more  complicated  and  which  takes  up  more 
room.  It  produces  a  softer  and  more 
elastic  yarn  which  is  especially  good  for 
hosiery.     (See  Figure  5.) 

The  kinds  of  yarn  spun  for  weaving  are : 


M 


COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 


I 


(a)  Warp  yarns,  which  are  hard,  twisted,  strong 

yarns  made  of  long  cotton  fibers.  These 
yams  must  be  strong  in  order  to  bear  the 
strain  of  weaving. 

(b)  Weft    or    filling    yams    which    are    loose, 

slightly  twisted  yams,  made  of  short  cot- 
ton fibers.  Very  little  strain  comes  on  the 
filling  yams,  consequently  they  need  not 
be  so  strong  as  the  warp  yarns. 

After  it  is  spun,  yarn  is  usually  doubled  and  twisted 
according  to  the  size  which  is  required  for  its  use  and 
afterwards  wound  into  skeins. 

Sizes  or  Counts  of  Yarns 

In  the  United  States  cotton  yams  are  known  by 
numbers  or  counts: 

No.  I  yarn  (seldom  used  because  too  coarse)  has 

I  skein  of  840  yards  ta  a  pound. 
No.  2  yarn  has  2  skeins  of  840  yards  each  to  the 

pound. 
No.  12  yam  has  12  skeins  of  840  yards  each  to 

the  pound. 
No.  30  yarn  has  30  skeins  of  840  yards  each  to 

the  poimd,  still  finer,  and  so  on. 
No.  200  yam  has  200  skeins  of  840  yards  each 

to  the  pound.     This  is  very  fine  yam  which  can 

be  made  from  Sea  Island  cotton. 


U 

C 

c 

'5- 


u 
3 
be 


A\ 


INTENTIONAL  SECOND  EXPOSURE 


24 


COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 


(a)  Warp  yarns,  which  are  hard,  twisted,  strong 

yarns  made  of  long  cotton  fibers.  These 
yarns  must  be  strong  in  order  to  bear  the 
strain  of  weaving. 

(b)  Weft    or    filling    yarns    which    are    loose, 

slightly  twisted  yarns,  made  of  short  cot- 
ton fibers.  Very  little  strain  comes  on  the 
filling  yarns,  consequently  they  need  not 
be  so  strong  as  the  warp  yarns. 

After  it  is  spun,  yarn  is  usually  doubled  and  twisted 
according  to  the  size  which  is  required  for  its  use  and 
afterwards  wound  into  skeins. 

Sizes  or  Counts  of  Yarns 

In  the  United  States  cotton  yams  are  known  by 
numbers  or  counts: 

No.  I  yarn  (seldom  used  because  too  coarse)  has 

I  skein  of  840  yards  to-  a  pound. 
No.  2  yarn  has  2  skeins  of  840  yards  each  to  the 

pound. 
No.  12  yarn  has  12  skeins  of  840  yards  each  to 

the  pound. 
No.  30  yarn  has  30  skeins  of  840  yards  each  to 

the  pound,  still  finer,  and  so  on. 
No.  200  yarn  has  200  skeins  of  840  yards  each 

to  the  pound.     This  is  very  fine  yarn  which  can 

be  made  from  Sea  Island  cotton. 


to 

iJ 


SPINNING 


as 


Yarns  may  be  single  twist,  2  ply,  3  ply,  etc. : 

2  ply  means  two  single-twisted  yams  twisted  to- 
gether. 

3  ply  means  three  single-twisted  yams  twisted  to- 
gether. 

Cotton  yam  is  yellowish  in  color  and  may  be 
bleached  before  weaving  or  the  cloth  may  be  woven 
and  bleached  later. 


>!! 


Chapter  IV 

WEAVING 
Definition 

Weaving  is  the  making  of  cloth  by  the  interlacing 
of  two  sets  of  threads  crossing  each  other  at  right 
angles.  Of  these  the  lengthwise  threads  are  called 
the  warp  while  the  crosswise  threads  are  called  the 
woof,  weft,  or  filling.  In  this  country  the  crosswise 
threads  are  usually  spoken  of  as  filling  while  in  Eng- 
land they  are  called  the  weft  threads. 

Origin 

The  art  of  weaving  can  be  traced  to  the  very  earliest 
people.  The  women  of  savage  tribes  used  any  ma- 
terial, such  as  grasses  or  reeds,  that  might  be  at  hand, 
interlacing  the  fibers  in  a  very  crude  manner  to  make 
mats,  baskets,  etc.  At  first  the  strips  were  put  over 
and  under  one  at  a  time.  Then  the  women  found 
that  they  could  fasten  pieces  together  to  make  longer 
strips. 

The  Primitive  Loom 

In  the  next  stage  the  long  strips  of  the  grasses  or 


WEAVING 


27 


other  materials  to  be  woven  were  stretched  and 
fastened  on  the  ground  and  the  cross  material  was 
carried  over  and  under  these  long  pieces.  Next  a  stick 
was  fastened  to  every  alternate  thread  of  warp  so 
that  these  threads  could  be  raised  to  allow  the  cross 
threads  to  go  through.     (  See  Figure  6. ) 

The  Upright  or  Vertical  Loom 

In  the  upright  loom  the  warp  threads  were  held  in 
an  upright  position  by  fastening  them  to  two  beams, 
one  at  the  top  and  one  at  the  bottom,  and  fastening 
the  top  beam  to  a  tree.  The  alternate  warp  threads 
were  fastened  to  a  stick  as  in  the  primitive  loom,  so 
that  they  could  be  raised  or  lowered  to  form  a  shed  as 
the  cross  threads  were  drawn  through.  This  type 
is  still  used  by  the  Navajo  Indians  in  the  weaving  of 
the  famous  Navajo  rugs. 

The  Hand  Loom 

The  primitive  looms  were  gradually  improved  to 
suit  the  needs  of  people  wishing  for  finer  materials 
and  better  workmanship  until  the  hand  loom  was  de- 
veloped, which  has  been  called  the  colonial  loom  though 
it  was  used  in  Europe  before  the  colonies  were  settled. 

This  is  the  type  upon  which  the  power  loom  of  the 
present  day  is  based.  It  consisted  of  upright  beams 
held  together  by  cross  beams.  The  different  parts  of 
the  loom  were  fastened  to  these  beams. 


!»' 


I 


f 


28 


COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 


Parts  of  the  Hand  Loom 

The  hand  loom  consisted  of  the  following  parts: 

The  warp  beam  for  holding  the  warp. 

The  cloth  beam  for  winding  up  the  cloth  after  it 
was  woven. 

The  reed  through  which  the  warp  threads  passed, 
and  which  was  also  used  as  a  batten  to  beat  the  weft 
threads  together. 

The  heddles  through  an  opening  or  eye  of  which 
the  warp  threads  passed. 

The  shuttle  for  carrying  the  woof  or  filling  thread. 

The  harness  which  consisted  of  two  or  more  shafts 
each  having  a  sort  of  framework  for  holding  the 
heddles.  These  shafts  were  connected  by  a  rope  to 
the  treadles  and  by  this  means  were  moved  up  and 
down  to  form  the  shed  through  which  the  shuttle 
passed.  In  weaving  wide  materials  it  required  two 
weavers,  one  at  each  end  of  the  loom  to  return  the 
shuttle. 

In  machine  weaving  the  same  names  are  used  to 
designate  corresponding  parts  of  the  loom.  Most  of 
the  inventions  for  the  machine  looms  were  made  in 
the  last  half  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

The  Flying  Shuttle 

In  1773  John  Kay,  a  native  of  Lancashire  whose 
father  was  a  woolen  manufacturer,  invented  what  is 


Courtesy  of  American  Museum  of  Natural  History 
Figure  6.     Primitive  Loom 


Courtesy  of  York  Street  Flax  Spinning  Company 

Figure  7.    The  Jacquard  Loom 


INTENTIONAL  SECOND  EXPOSURE 


28 


COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 


Parts  of  the  Hand  Loom 

The  hand  loom  consisted  of  the  following  parts: 

The  warp  beam  for  holding  the  warp. 

The  cloth  beam  for  winding  up  the  cloth  after  it 
was  woven. 

The  reed  through  which  the  warp  threads  passed, 
and  which  was  also  used  as  a  batten  to  beat  the  weft 
threads  together. 

The  heddles  through  an  opening  or  eye  of  which 
the  warp  threads  passed. 

The  shuttle  for  carrying  the  woof  or  filling  thread. 

The  harness  which  consisted  of  two  or  more  shafts 
each  having  a  sort  of  framework  for  holding  the 
heddles.  These  shafts  were  connected  by  a  rope  to 
the  treadles  and  by  this  means  were  moved  up  and 
down  to  form  the  shed  through  which  the  shuttle 
passed.  In  weaving  wide  materials  it  required  two 
weavers,  one  at  each  end  of  the  loom  to  return  the 
shuttle. 

In  machine  weaving  the  same  names  are  used  to 
designate  corresponding  parts  of  the  loom.  Most  of 
the  inventions  for  the  machine  looms  were  made  in 
the  last  half  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

The  Flying  Shuttle 

In  1773  John  Kay,  a  native  of  Lancashire  whose 
father  was  a  woolen  manufacturer,  invented  what  is 


Courtesy  of  American   Museum  of   Natural   History 
Figure  6.     Primitive  Loom 


Courtesy  of   York  Street  Flax   Spinning   Company 

Figure  7.    The  Jacquard  Loom 


WEAVING 


29 


known  as  the  flying  shuttle.  This  invention  consisted 
of  two  boxes,  one  at  each  side  of  the  loom.  By  means 
of  a  rope  the  shuttle  was  made  to  pass  through  the 
sheds  of  alternate  threads  to  one  box  and  back  again 
to  the  other  box.  In  this  way  only  one  man  was 
needed  to  operate  the  loom  where  two  were  needed 
before.  At  first  this  was  not  well  received,  but  it  was 
soon  seen  that  more  cloth  could  be  woven,  the  price 
reduced,  and  more  work  done. 

The  First  Power  Loom 

The  first  power  loom  was  patented  in  1785  by  Rev. 
Dr.  Cartwright,  a  clergyman  of  England.  It  is  on  his 
foundation  that  the  perfected  automatic  loom  of  today 
is  built.  Many  inventions  have  followed,  the  most 
wonderful  of  all  being  the  Jacquard  harness  for  the 
loom. 

The  weaving  of  figures  in  cloth  was  first  done  by 
using  several  heddles  and  harnesses.  This  sort  of 
weaving  was  in  process  when  M.  Jacquard  invented 
the  loom  which  bears  his  name. 

The  Jacquard  Loom 

By  means  of  the  Jacquard  loom  the  most  intricate 
and  beautiful  patterns  can  be  woven  into  the  cloth. 
Joseph  Marie  Jacquard,  the  inventor,  was  bom  in 
1752.  In  1804  he  brought  forward  his  invention  and 
met  with  bitter  opposition,  his  machine  was  burned  in 


!ii 


f 


30 


COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 


the  streets  but  was  later  reconstructed  with  improve- 
ments. 

It  consists  of  a  pierced  cylinder  around  which  a 
chain  of  cards  revolves,  each  card  pierced  with  holes 
and  the  total  of  all  cards  indicates  the  complete  pat- 
tern; opposite  this  cylinder  are  horizontal  needles 
which,  as  the  cylinder  turns,  come  up  and  strike  the 
cards.  Each  needle  governs  a  hook  which,  by  means 
of  an  upright  connecting  cord,  governs  a  certain  warp 
thread.  As  the  needles  strike  the  cards,  those  that 
pass  through  the  holes  in  the  cards  lift  the  hooks 
which  lift  the  warp  threads.  The  other  needles  strik- 
ing the  card  where  there  are  no  holes,  do  not  lift  their 
hooks  and  the  threads  remain  in  position.  When  the 
threads  are  lifted  by  the  hook  the  shuttle  passes  under 
and  the  cylinder  turns  again  with  the  next  card  in  place 
for  the  next  row  of  threads  to  be  lifted.  In  this  way 
very  beautiful  and  intricate  designs  are  woven  into 
cloth.     (See  Figure  7.) 

The  Power  Loom  in  the  United  States 

Steam-power  for  the  running  of  the  loom  was  not 
used  in  this  country  before  the  period  from  181 2  to 
1820.  So  in  the  United  States  it  is  scarcely  100  years 
since  the  modern  factory  with  the  power  loom  was 
started.  The  industry  has  developed  into  one  of  the 
greatest  of  the  time.    Each  year  brings  new  improve- 


WEAVING 


31 


ments  and  devices  until  the  results  obtained  are  almost 
marvelous. 

The  value  of  time  and  labor  during  the  colonial 
period  when  everything  was  made  by  hand  did  not 
seem  to  be  considered ;  the  main  object  seemed  to  pro- 
duce something  good  and  durable  and  beautiful  if 
possible. 

Today  in  the  department  stores  are  found  machine- 
made  fabrics  which  are  beautiful  but  most  of  them 
have  not  the  strength  or  durability  of  the  hand-made 
materials.  The  speed  with  which  fabrics  can  be  manu- 
factured has  enabled  the  production  of  greater  quan- 
tities and  a  lower  price  has  been  the  result,  as  well 
as  greater  variety  of  materials. 

Weaving  Processes 

Of  the  two  sets  of  threads  which  are  used  in  the 
weaving,  the  warp  threads  which  run  lengthwise  of  the 
loom,  are  called  ends,  and  the  woof,  weft,  or  filling 
threads  which  are  put  in  across  the  warp  threads,  are 
known  as  picks. 

I.  Preparing  the  Warp,  When  the  width  of  the 
cloth  is  decided  upon,  a  certain  number  of  warp 
threads  or  ends  must  be  counted  and  put  into  the  loom. 

Before  the  threads  are  drawn  into  the  loom  they  are 
put  through  a  sizing  process,  which  is  a  process  of 
strengthening  the  cotton  yam  by  passing  it  through  a 


32 


COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 


starchy  or  glutinous    liquid.     This  also  prevents  it 
from  becoming  rough  or  fluffy  in  the  loom. 

2.  Threading.  The  threads  are  wound  on  a  large 
beam  in  the  right  order  and  then  threaded  and  drawn 
in  through  the  heddles  and  reed  of  the  loom. 

By  means  of  the  harness  the  warp  threads  are  raised 
and  lowered  alternately  forming  a  shed,  through 
which  the  weft  thread  is  carried  by  means  of  a  shuttle 
which  holds  the  bobbins  and  thread. 

After  each  passage  of  the  weft  thread  across  the 
warp,  the  reed  pushes  it  back  tight  against  the  preced- 
ing threads,  forming  a  firm  piece  of  cloth.  The 
finished  cloth  is  rolled  up  on  the  cloth  beam.  One 
weaver  can  take  care  of  from  i6  to  24  looms  as  they 
stop  automatically  if  a  thread  breaks. 

3.  Weaves.  Many  weaves  may  be  produced  but 
only  the  simplest  ones  will  be  considered. 

(a)  The  plain  weave  is  the  simple  interlacing  of 
the  warp  and  weft  threads  over  and  under  each  other 
regularly  as  in  muslin,  percale,  lawn,  and  nainsook. 

(b)  The  twill  weave  is  one  in  which  weft  threads 
may  go  under  two  or  more  warp  threads  and  over  two 
or  more,  each  row  beginning  one  thread  in  advance 
of  the  preceding  row  and  so  forming  what  is  called  the 
twill;  as  in  denim,  galatea,  canton  flannel,  etc. 

(c)  The  satin  or  sateen  weave  leaves  long  threads 
on  the  surface.  Either  the  filling  threads  in  each  row 
have  been  carried  over  several  warp  threads  (from  4 


WEAVING 


33 


to  12)  and  under  only  one,  or  they  have  been  carried 
under  the  desired  number  and  over  one.  Light  is  re- 
flected from  these  longer  threads  causing  them  to  shine 
like  satin,  while  the  short  ones  are  entirely  concealed. 

(d)  The  pattern  weave  is  made  on  a  Jacquard  loom, 
as  in  cotton  brocades  and  cotton  damask.  A  float  is 
a  length  of  thread  which  passes  over  several  threads 
before  it  is  caught  down.  This  may  be  found  in  the 
satin  weave  but  is  noticeable  in  the  pattern  weave 
where  floats  of  different  lengths  make  the  pattern. 

(e)  The  pile  weave  is  used  in  weaving  corduroy, 
velveteen,  and  cotton  velvets.  Two  sets  of  filling 
threads  are  used  to  one  warp.  The  extra  filling  thread 
forms  the  pile  on  the  face  of  the  cloth,  and  as  the 
weaving  proceeds  it  is  cut  along  the  length  of  the 
material. 

Inspecting 

When  the  cloth  is  taken  from  the  loom  it  is  looked 
over  carefully  for  defects  such  as  weak  places,  tears, 
etc.,  and  these  are  mended. 

If  the  mill  does  none  of  the  finishing  processes,  the 
cloth  is  measured,  made  up  in  bolts,  wrapped  in  paper, 
and  put  in  cases  to  be  shipped.  The  value  of  cotton 
cloth  depends  upon  the  fineness  of  the  threads  and 
this  is  spoken  of  as  so  many  picks  and  ends  to  the  inch. 
"  Berkely  180  "  means  180  picks  and  180  ends  to  the 
inch.     This  is  called  the  "  count." 


y  \ 


1  i'; 


I  >■] 


Chapter  V 

FINISHING 

Importance  of  Finishing  Processes 

The  method  of  finishing  a  cloth  is  often  the  deter- 
mining factor  in  its  manufacture,  as  the  only  differ- 
ence between  some  materials  is  in  the  dressing  and 
finishing  after  weaving. 

Outline  of  the  Processes 

The  following  is  an  outline  of  the  various  methods : 

1.  Bleaching  —  cotton  cloth  when  taken  from  the 

loom  is  yellowish  unless  the  yarn  has  been 
previously  bleached,  and  must  be  bleached 
white.  This  is  usually  done  in  the  piece. 
Chloride  of  lime  is  the  chemical  commonly 
used. 

2.  Dyeing 

(a)  Piece  dyeing  —  solid  colors. 

(b)  Printing  —  designs  stamped  on,  as  per- 

cales, organdies,  dimity. 

3.  Dressing 

(a)  Glycerin  and  oils  for  softness,  as  in  mull. 

34 


FINISHING 


35 


(b)  Starch  for  fullness  of  finish,  as  in  musHn. 

(c)  Mucilage  and  gum  for  gloss  and  stiff- 

ness, as  in  percaline  lining  and  swiss. 

(d)  China  clay  for  solid  appearance,  as  in 

cretonne  and  canvas. 
4.  Finishes 

(a)  Brushing  —  removal  of  knots  and  other 

defects  by  emery  rolls  and  beaters. 

(b)  Tentering  —  stretching     the      material 

crosswise  to  keep  an  even  width. 

(c)  Beetling  —  beating    by    hammers    and 

pressing  to  give  a  shiny  surface  like 
linen. 

(d)  Calendering  —  giving  luster  and  smooth- 

ness by  pressure  under  heavy  rollers. 
This  gloss  is  lost  in  laundering. 
Schreinerizing  is  also  done  by  this 
process. 

(e)  Embossing  —  producing  pattern  effects 

by  heated  rollers.  These  patterns  are 
lost  in  laundering. 

(f)  Singeing  —  removing  the  short  ends  by 

passing  through  red  hot  copper  plates 
or  Bunsen  burners  and  water  troughs. 
Beetling  follows.  Percales  and  cali- 
coes are  finished  this  way. 

(g)  Napping   or   gigging  —  loosening   and 


36      COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 

roughing  the  ends  by  means  of  cylin- 
ders covered  with  card  clothing  as  in 
outing  flannel. 
(h)  Mercerizing  —  producing   a   permanent 
silk-like  gloss  by  chemical  means. 

Mercerization 

Mercerization  is  so  widely  used  and  so  important 
a  process  that  more  space  should  be  given  to  describing 
it 

The  materials  most  commonly  mercerized  are: 

Tussur 

Foulard 

Sateen 

Silkoline 

Imitation  Silk  Linings 

Various  Upholstery  (}oods 

Hosiery  and  Knit  Underwear 

There  are  also  many  so-called  silk  mixed  goods  in 
which  cotton  yarn  has  been  mercerized  and  used  as 
silk.  These  are  found  especially  in  the  novelty  cotton 
goods  which  seem  to  have  silk  stripes.  These  ailk- 
like  cotton  materials  are  often  sold  either  in  the  aisles 
or  on  the  counters  very  near  the  silk  goods  section. 

Discovery  of  Mercerization 

The  permanent  gloss  which  is  found  on  these  cotton 
materials  is  made  by  a  process  discovered  by  John 
Mercer,  for  whom  the  process  is  named,  in  1844,  and 


Poplin 

Lawn 

Cotton  Taffeta 

Tub  Silk 

Voile 

Shantung 

Cotton  Damask 


FINISHING 


37 


patented  in  1850.  He  found  that  by  immersing  cot- 
ton goods  in  caustic  soda,  the  cotton  fiber,  which  under 
the  microscope  is  flat  and  ribbon-like,  swelled  imtil 
it  was  round  and  tube-like,  and  then  contracted  or 
shrank  in  length  making  it  stronger.  It  was  found 
that  such  cotton  also  took  dyes  more  easily  than  the 
ordinary  cotton.     (See  Figure  8.) 

Little  was  done  with  this  discovery  until  1889, 
when  in  experimenting  with  this  process,  the  goods 
were  stretched  to  prevent  shrinking.  When  the  caus- 
tic soda  was  washed  out  a  gloss  appeared  which  was 
found  to  be  permanent.  As  chemicals  were  cheaper 
than  when  the  process  was  first  discovered,  mercerized 
cotton  began  to  be  put  on  the  market,  with  the  result 
that  it  has  gained  in  popularity,  and  is  now  used  to  a 
great  extent.  It  has  given  to  cotton  fabrics  a  much 
wider  use  than  before  and  is,  therefore,  a  most  im- 
portant discovery. 

Process  of  Mercerization 

The  long-fibered  cotton.  Sea  Island  or  Egyptian,  is 
used  because  it  will  stand  more  strain  than  the  shorter 
fibers. 

The  yarn  or  cloth  is  first  washed,  rinsed,  and  dried. 
It  is  then  put  in  the  caustic  soda  and  left  for  ten  or 
fifteen  minutes.  Then  it  is  removed  and  stretched  to 
its   original   length.    The   material   may   be   passed 


\ 


38 


COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 


). 


through  the  caustic  soda  solution  on  rollers  which  keep 
it  stretched.  While  still  under  tension  it  is  washed 
in  water  to  which  a  chemical  has  been  added,  usually 
sulphuric  acid.  This  counteracts  any  harm  the  caustic 
soda  might  do  the  material.  The  material  is  then 
bleached,  although  the  bleaching  may  be  done  before 
mercerizing. 

It  is  finished  by  dyeing,  singeing,  and  calendering. 
Sometimes  the  yarns  are  gassed  to  remove  the  ends 
of  the  fibers  before  being  mercerized. 

Mercerization  not  only  gives  a  silk-like  appearance 
to  cotton  goods,  but  makes  the  goods  stronger  through 
the  swelling  and  contraction  of  the  fibers.  There- 
fore, mercerized  materials  may  be  recommended  for 
their  strength  and  durability.  They  wear  well  and 
look  well,  but  should  not  be  passed  oflF  as  silk. 

Difference  Between  Mercerization  and  Calendering 

Calendering  or  schreinerizing  should  not  be  con- 
fused with  mercerizing,  as  by  these  processes  the  gloss 
formed  is  not  permanent,  but  will  be  lost  in  the  first 
laundering.  Schreinerizing  is  a  calendering  process. 
The  cloth  is  passed  under  rollers  engraved  with  fine 
lines.  The  threads  are  pressed  flat  and  the  lines  ap- 
pearing on  the  surface  reflect  the  light,  giving  the  high 
luster. 


Chapter  VI 

MIXTURES,  ADULTERATIONS,  IMITATIONS, 
AND  TESTS  FOR  COTTON 

Mixtures 

Cotton  may  be  mixed  with  other  materials  to  pro- 
duce mixed  or  fancy  effects.  These  mixtures  may 
be :  cotton  and  linen,  cotton  and  wool,  cotton  and  silk, 
cotton  and  artificial  silk  or  fiber  silk,  or  cotton  and 
mercerized  cotton.  Many  attractive  cotton  fabrics 
with  silk  stripes  and  figures  are  made  by  combining 
cotton  with  artificial  silk,  mercerized  cotton,  and 
sometimes  weak,  spun  silk. 

Adulterations 

Adulterations  have  been  the  result  of  the  demand 
for  a  low-priced  article,  and  competition  has  been  so 
keen  among  the  manufacturers  that  they  have  tried  to 
make  poor  material  look  like  good  material.  They 
also  have  given  their  goods  names  which  would  lead 
the  public  to  think  they  were  made  from  a  better  ma- 
terial. 

Cotton,  although  the  cheapest  fiber,  may  be  adulter- 

39 


1^ 

'1 
h 

i 


40 


COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 


ated  and  further  cheapened  by  sizings,  such  as  starch, 
glue,  gum,  and  china  clay,  which  are  put  in  to 
strengthen  the  fiber.  The  sizing  washes  out,  leaving 
a  poor,  loosely  woven,  thin  material. 

Imitations 

Cotton  has  an  extraordinary  capacity  for  imitation 
so  that  it  can  be  made  to  look  like  all  the  other  fibers. 
For  instance,  there  are  cotton  tweeds  and  cotton 
cashmeres,  cotton  voiles  and  cotton  challis,  cotton 
poplins  and  cotton  pongees,  and  many  other  imita- 
tions. Many  of  these  materials  are  very  attractive 
and  serve  their  purpose  well,  but  customers  are  be- 
coming more  and  more  interested  in  the  exact  quality 
that  they  are  buying. 

If  salespeople  know  these  imitations  and  can  speak 
intelligently  about  the  materials  of  which  their  stock 
is  made,  showing  the  advantage  of  each  for  the  pur- 
pose required,  buyers  will  learn  to  trust  their  judg- 
ment as  well  as  their  honesty.  If  people  understand 
that  they  are  getting  imitation  goods  for  a  lower  price 
than  that  for  which  the  real  article  could  be  sold,  they 
will  not  expect  them  to  wear  so  well  as  the  more  ex- 
pensive materials. 

Imitations  of  Linen 

Cotton  is  made  to  imitate  linen  by  the  calendering 
process  whereby  a  gloss  is  put  on  which  will  not  re- 


IMITATIONS  OF  COTTON 


41 


main  after  washing.     Plain  cotton  is  made  to  imitate 
mercerized  cotton  by  the  calendering  process. 

Imitations  of  Silk 

Silk  effects  are  produced  by  using  silk  patterns  of 
which  taffeta  silk  is  an  example.  The  lustrous  satin 
finish  is  given  to  the  cotton  sateens  by  using  a  dressing 
of  glycerin  and  passing  the  material  through  heated 
rollers  under  pressure.  This  is  the  calender  finish. 
Mercerized  cotton  ever  since  its  discovery  has  been 
U3ed  to  imitate  silk,  and  when  woven  in  a  silk  pattern 
strongly  resembles  spun  silk. 

Embossed  patterns  are  sometimes  made  to  imitate 
brocades.  These  patterns  are  made  by  machines, 
after  the  cloth  is  woven.  As  the  nap  around  the  pat- 
tern is  simply  pressed  flat  with  a  little  dressing  to  hold 
it  down,  the  dressing  and  gloss  will  disappear  if 
laundered. 

Imitations  of  Wool 

It  is  made  to  look  like  wool  in  various  ways. 
Sometimes  patterns  which  are  usually  seen  only  in 
wool  are  used.  Sometimes  the  fibers  are  chemically 
treated  so  that  they  resemble  wool.  The  imitation  of 
wool  with  which  we  are  most  familiar  is  the  napping 
process.  By  this  process  the  loosely  woven  cotton 
material  passes  between  rollers  covered  with  small 
teeth  or  wires  which  scratch  the  surface  of  the  cloth, 


COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 


H't 


giving  it  a  rough  appearance  like  wool.  Examples 
of  this  are  outing  flannel,  flannelette,  blankets,  and 
others. 


Names  of  Imitation  Goods 

Misleading  names 

for  cotton  materials  are : 

Flaxon 

Linon 

Linene 

Near-Silk 

Silkaline 

Sateen 
Velveteen 
Outing  Flannel 
Flannelette 

Tests  for  Cotton  Materials 

There  are  some  very  simple  tests  which  can  be  made 
for  cotton.    These  are: 

1.  For  heavy  sizings: 

(a)  Hold  the  cloth  to  the  light  and  look 

through  to  see  if  the  sizing  can  be 
seen  in  the  meshes. 

(b)  Rub  the  cloth  between  the  hands  and  a 

white  powder  will  come  off  if  it  is 
heavily  sized. 

(c)  Boil  a  sample  to  remove  the  sizing  and 

notice  the   quality   of   the   material 
afterwards. 

2.  To  test  the  cloth  for  strength,  press  the  thumbs 

against  it.     If  it  is  weak  it  will  break  easily. 

3.  The  calendered  or  glossy  finish  used  in  imita- 


TESTS  FOR  COTTON 


43 


tion  of  linen  or  mercerized  cotton  will  dis- 
appear if  a  sample  is  washed. 

Cotton  Under  the  Microscope 

Each   fiber  has   its   own   characteristic   structure, 
which  will  show  plainly  under  the  microscope.     There- 


I 


I 


'^ 


A— Unripe  Cotton.    B — Ripe  Cotton.    C — Mercerized  Cotton.     D— Flax. 
Figure  8.    Cotton  and  Flax  Fibers  Under  the  Microscope 

fore,  the  fibers  of  which  materials  are  composed  may 
be  detected  in  this  way. 


44 


COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 


I 


The  ripe  cotton  fiber  under  a  microscope  looks  like 
a  flat  ribbon  with  a  ridge  at  each  side  and  is  twisted 
several  times.  This  twist  helps  in  the  spinning,  for 
the  fibers  twist  around  each  other,  adding  to  their 
strength.  In  good  fibers  the  twist  is  rather  uniform 
and  strong.  Unripe  cotton  fibers  have  very  little 
twist  and  do  not  take  the  dye  well. 

Mercerized  cotton  fibers  have  a  cylindrical,  smooth, 
and  stretched  appearance.  There  is  usually  no  twist, 
but  occasionally  a  slight  one  may  be  detected.  (See 
Figure  8.) 


Chapter  VII 

COLOR  AND  DESIGN  IN  COTTON  FABRICS 

Importance  of  Color  Arrangement 

Color  is  important  in  the  display  of  goods,  in  mak- 
ing an  appeal  to  the  customer  and  in  its  relation  to 
the  store  as  a  whole. 

Inharmonious  or  crude  combinations  of  color  give 
an  unpleasant  impression  which  is  not  always  clearly 
defined  but  affects  one's  judgment  of  the  merchandise 
in  question.  If  bright  colors  are  all  placed  together, 
they  detract  from  each  other,  while  quiet  colors  bring 
out  the  full  values  of  the  more  brilliant  ones  and  their 
own  softer  tones  are  made  more  interesting. 

A  person  intending  to  stop  and  look  at  goods  for 
the  purpose  of  buying  may  almost  unconsciously  pass 
by  a  counter  where  color  combinations  hurt  the  eye. 
Most  people  are  sensitive  to  color,  many  without 
realizing  it.  A  person  may  be  especially  attracted  to 
a  counter  where  goods  are  arranged  in  pleasing  combi- 
nations and  although  not  intending  to  buy,  may  be- 
come a  customer  at  once. 

45 


! 


46 


COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 


Effect  of  Colors  Upon  Each  Other 

Two  colors  that  are  pleasing  in  themselves  may  be 
injured  by  being  put  next  to  each  other;  each  borrows 
an  effect  or  value  from  the  other.  If  red  and  blue 
are  put  next  to  each  other,  the  blue  will  appear  green- 
ish, while  red  will  turn  more  orange.  Black  makes 
any  other  color  look  darker  and  white  makes  the  color 
brighter. 

Saleswomen  should  be  able  to  assist  in  matching 
colors  and  also  in  selecting  the  color  suitable  for  dif- 
ferent people.  This  requires  a  study  of  the  effect  of 
color  on  the  complexion. 

The  use  for  which  materials  are  intended  makes 
some  difference  in  the  choice  of  the  color,  bright  colors 
being  more  attractive  in  the  house  than  on  the  street. 

Warm  colors  are  those  suggested  by  sun  and  fire, 
as  red,  orange,  yellow ;  cool  colors  are  those  suggested 
by  sky  and  grass,  as  green,  blue,  violet. 

A  knowledge  of  color  and  design  is  valuable  in 
every  department,  but  its  importance  is  greatest  in  the 
Silk  Department.  Therefore,  a  much  fuller  treatment 
of  the  subject  will  be  given  in  that  manual  and  only  a 
brief  outline  here. 

Effect  of  Artificial  Light  on  Colors 
In  artificial  light,  colors  change,  i.e., 
Purples  and  violets  appear  brown. 


COLOR  AND  DESIGN 


47 


Yellow,  orange,  and  red  are  brightened  and  en- 
riched. 
Green  appears  yellower  and  darker. 
Blue  is  less  pure  and  darker. 

Color  Combinations 

There  are  certain  safe  guides  to  good  color  com- 
binations : 

1.  From  science.     (Color  wheel  harmonies — See 

manual  for  "  Silk  Department.") 

2.  In  nature  —  as  birds,  butterflies,  flowers. 

5.  In  pictures  —  Japanese  prints,  reproductions  of 

masterpieces,  etc. 
4.  In  good  textiles  —  as  seen  in  museums. 

Many  of  the  bright  colors  are  found  at  the  lining 
counters  as  these  materials  are  used  on  the  inside  of  a 
garment  where  only  an  occasional  glimpse  may  be 
seen.  Sometimes  these  bright  colored  linings  are  not 
as  desirable  as  a  gray  or  quiet  color,  because  if  worn 
next  to  white  the  color  may  come  off.  Effective  con- 
trasts of  color  are  often  desired  in  linings. 

Reproducing  the  Design 

Designs  in  cotton  materials  are  produced  by  two 
methods,  weaving  and  printing.  Woven  patterns 
often  increase  the  cost  of  the  material. 

When  the  cloth  is  woven,  the  pattern,  whether  a 


48 


i» 


COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 


figure,  stripe,  or  plaid,  may  be  woven  into  the  cloth 
at  the  same  time.  The  pattern  may  be  of  the  same 
color  as  the  background  of  the  fabric,  or  it  may  be 
of  various  colors,  each  woven  into  its  proper  place. 
Ginghams  are  a  good  example  of  this  method. 

The  pattern  may  be  printed  or  stamped  on  the 
cloth  in  one  or  in  many  colors.  This  method  is  used 
for  reproducing  the  flowered  patterns  of  dimities, 
percales,  and  challis.  Sometimes  material  is  found 
where  both  methods  have  been  used  on  one  piece. 

Other  Effects 

A  lengthwise  cord  effect  may  be  produced  by  using 
a  thick  warp  yarn  at  regular  intervals. 

A  crosswise  fine  rep  may  be  produced  by  using  a 
thick  and  heavy  weft  and  a  thin  warp. 

A  variety  of  patterns  may  be  produced  by  using  a 
yarn  different  from  the  yarn  forming  the  main  part 
of  the  cloth ;  for  example,  by  using  a  mercerized  cotton 
or  artificial  silk  with  a  regular  cotton  yarn. 

Striped  and  plaid  materials  are  made  from  yam 
which  has  been  dyed  before  it  is  woven.  Thus  dif- 
ferent colors  of  yarn  may  be  placed  side  by  side  in  the 
warp,  and  the  weft  may  be  all  one  plain  color,  in  which 
case  a  stripe  is  formed.  The  weft  may  be  of  colors 
the  same  as  the  warp  and  put  in  in  such  a  way  as  to 
form  a  plaid. 


COLOR  AND  DESIGN 


49 


The  designer  must  know  the  fashions  of  the  season 
to  follow  and  make  his  designs  accordingly.  Some- 
times stripes  may  be  the  prevailing  fashion  and  an- 
other season  plaids;  also  fashion  may  demand  small 
patterns  or  large  patterns. 


*K 


Chapter  VIII 

DYES  A^D  DYEING 
Origin 

Many  of  the  dyes  used  in  coloring  textiles  have  been 
known  and  used  for  centuries.  Long  ago  people 
realized  that  they  could  extract  coloring  matter  from 
certain  plants,  small  animals,  or  minerals,  and  use  this 
coloring  substance  as  a  dye  for  their  textile  materials. 
These  dyes  are  called  natural  dyes.  However,  dur- 
ing the  last  fifty  or  sixty  years  a  wonderful  discovery 
and  development  has  been  made  in  the  so-called  arti- 
ficial or  coal  tar  dyes,  which  are  chemical  compounds. 

Natural  Dyes 

As  the  name  implies,  the  natural  dyes  are  those 
which  are  obtained  from  nature  either  from  animals, 
plants,  or  minerals. 

The  natural  dyes  are  the  older  and  have  been  used 
from  the  most  ancient  times  until  the  middle  of  the 
last  century  when  the  artificial  dyes  were  discovered. 
A  few  of  these  natural  dyes  are  still  used  to  some 

50 


DYES  AND  DYEING 


SI 


extent  but  most  of  them  have  been  replaced  by  arti- 
ficial dyes. 

The  natural  dyes  may  be  classified  as  animal,  vege- 
table, and  mineral. 

Animal  Dyes 

The  animal  dyes  are  prepared  from  insects,  etc., 
such  as : 

Cochineal,  a  bright  red  dye,  which  is  obtained 
from  the  dried  bodies  of  small  insects. 

Lac,  a  scarlet  or  crimson  dye,  which  is  also  ob- 
tained from  the  bodies  of  small  insects. 

Tyrian  purple,  which  was  obtained  from  the  body 
of  a  small  shell  fish  in  quantities  of  two  or  three 
drops. 

Vegetable  Dyes 

The  dyes  made  from  vegetables  include: 

Logwood,  which  is  used  principally  for  black  silk. 

This  is  extracted  from  the  wood  of  a  West 

Indian  and  Central  American  tree. 
Indigo,  which  is  obtained  from  the  juice  of  a 

plant,    coming    originally    from    India.     This 

juice  is  yellow  when  fresh  but  turns  blue  upon 

exposure  to  the  light  and  air. 
Madder,  which  is  used  in  the  process  of  making 


! 


52      COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 

Turkey  red  dye.  It  is  obtained  from  the  root 
of  the  plant. 

Fustic,  which  is  a  yellow  dyestuff.  This  is  ex- 
tracted from  the  wood  of  a  tree. 

Cutch,  which  is  a  brown  dye.  This  is  obtained 
from  the  leaves,  seeds,  pods,  and  nuts  of  the 
acacia  tree. 

Mineral  Dyes 

There  are  a  great  many  combinations  of  metallic 
salts  for  making  colors,  such  as : 

Iron  bufif,  which  is  a  solution  of  saUs  of  iron 
used  in  the  present  day  in  the  dyeing  of  khaki 
cloth. 

Prussian  blue,  which  has  copperas  and  potassium 
ferro-cyanide  as  a  basis,  used  as  a  substitute 
for  the  more  expensive  indigo. 

Chrome  yellow,  made  of  lead  acetate  and  potas- 
sium bichromate. 

Artificial  or  Aniline  Dyes 

Artificial  dyes  were  discovered  by  an  English 
chemist,  W.  H.  Perkin,  in  1856,  and  the  discovery 
has  completely  revolutionized  the  art  of  dyeing. 

These  dyes  are  known  also  as  coal  tar  dyes  because 
obtained  indirectly  from  coal  tar,  a  thick,  oily,  black 
product  left  from  the  manufacture  of  coal  gas.     For 


DYES  AND  DYEING 


S3 


many  years  this  substance  was  hard  to  get  rid  of,  as 
there  was  no  use  for  it.  Now  it  is  a  valuable  product 
and  is  used  not  only  for  dyeing,  but  for  the  production 
of  medicines,  perfumes,  flavoring  extracts,  and  so  on. 

In  the  distillation  of  coal  tar  a  great  many  different 
products  are  obtained;  one  of  these  is  called  aniline 
and  it  was  while  experimenting  with  aniline  that  the 
first  dye  was  discovered.  This  was  called  mauve, 
and  since  then  hundreds  of  colors  have  been  obtained 
which  are  known  as  aniline  dyes. 

Thus  far  Germany  has  led  the  world  in  the  pro- 
duction of  artificial  dyes  and  the  industry  employs 
many  chemists  who  are  constantly  discovering  new 
colors. 

Direct  Cotton  Dyes  (Substantive  Dyes) 

It  was  not  until  1884  that  a  dye  was  discovered 
which  would  dye  cotton  directly.  This  was  known 
as  Congo  red.  After  this,  many  other  colors  ap- 
peared. The  dye  is  dissolved  in  water  and  brought 
to  a  certain  temperature.  Common  salt  is  usually  put 
into  the  bath,  the  cotton  is  immersed  for  a  short  time, 
then  taken  out  and  rinsed,  and  then,  in  order  that 
the  color  shall  be  fast,  it  may  be  necessary  to  put  the 
material  through  other  chemical  solutions  such  as 
aluminum,  copper,  or  chromium  salts.  "  Diamond 
Dyes  '*  belong  to  this  class. 


r 


} 


54 


COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 


Sulphur  Dyes 

These  also  dye  cotton  directly ;  that  is,  without  the 
use  of  a  mordant  and  are  especially  good  in  the  darker 
colors.  With  many  sulphur  colors,  an  after  treatment 
with  a  metallic  salt  is  necessary.  They  are  fast  to 
light,  washing,  and  perspiration  and  therefore  they  are 
good  for  hosiery  and  knit  goods  in  black  and  dark 
colors. 

Mordant  Dyeing 

Until  the  discovery  of  the  direct  cotton  dyes,  all 
cotton  materials  had  to  be  treated  with  a  mordant 
before  dyeing,  because  without  such  treatment  the  dye 
would  not  unite  with  the  cotton  fiber. 

A  mordant  or  fixing  bath  is  a  chemical  which  unites 
with  both  the  cotton  fiber  and  the  dye  so  that  the  color 
becomes  fixed  or  fast  in  the  material.  Usually  the 
cotton  goods  is  first  immersed  in  a  mordant  bath  and 
dried,  and  then  immersed  in  the  dye.  Sometimes  the 
mordant  can  be  put  into  the  dye  bath  in  which  case 
only  one  process  is  necessary. 

The  mordant  process  is  preferred  to  other  processes 
for  some  colors  and  some  materials  as  the  colors  are 
more  fast. 

Vat  Dyes 

These  dyes  are  especially  fast  to  light  and  washing. 


DYES  AND  DYEING 


55 


They  are  so  called  because  of  a  special  preparation 
which  is  made  in  the  dyeing  vats  before  putting  in  the 
cloth.  The  coloring  matter  in  certain  dyes  is  insoluble 
in  water,  consequently,  a  chemical  must  be  used  which 
will  form  a  new  compound  that  is  soluble  in  water. 
This  new  compound  is  either  colorless  or  yellow. 
The  cloth  is  put  into  the  solution,  worked  up  and 
down  for  the  solution  to  penetrate,  and  is  then  washed 
and  hung  so  that  the  air  will  reach  every  part  of  it. 
The  color  appears  on  the  material  as  the  compound 
on  the  fiber  comes  in  contact  with  the  oxygen  of  the 
air  and  is  oxidized. 

Methods  of  Dyeing 

Raw  Cotton.  This  is  sometimes,  but  not  often, 
dyed  before  it  is  spun. 

Yarn  Dyeing,  Striped  and  plaid  materials,  as 
ginghams,  madras,  etc.,  are  made  from  yarn  which 
has  been  dyed  before  it  is  woven. 

Piece  Dyeing.  The  woven  cloth  may  be  dyed  in 
the  piece.  Cloth  which  is  all  one  color  is  usually 
piece-dyed.  This  is  the  cheapest  method  as  it  is  done 
by  machinery.  It  may  be  done  by  simply  preparing 
the  dye  bath  and  when  the  proper  temperature  is 
reached  the  goods  may  be  run  into  the  bath  where 
they  are  kept  in  constant  motion  by  means  of  rollers, 
and  then  passed  to  the  rinsing  box.     Most  of  the  plain 


1 1 

^ 


)i 


56 


COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 


cotton  materials,  as  sateens,  denims,  muslins,  velvet- 
eens, etc.,  are  piece-dyed. 

The  Dyeing  Process 

The  material  is  first  washed  to  remove  any  oil  and 
coloring  matter  that  may  be  present.  As  cotton  cloth 
is  of  a  yellowish  tinge  it  must  be  bleached  if  light 
colors  are  desired,  but  for  dark  colors  this  is  not 
necessary. 

Before  dyeing,  the  material  must  be  thoroughly 
and  evenly  wet.  In  the  dye  vat  it  must  be  kept  in 
constant  motion  that  the  dye  may  penetrate  evenly. 
The  longer  it  is  allowed  to  stay  in  the  dye  the  deeper 
will  be  the  color. 

Upon  removal  from  the  dye  vat,  it  is  plunged  into 
cold  water  to  remove  the  loose  dye,  and  it  is  then 
dried. 

Printing 

Designs  or  patterns  which  are  not  woven  into  the 
cloth  are  printed  on  the  surface.  Examples  of 
printed  cotton  goods  are : 

Calico  Flannelette 

Challis  Lawn 

Chintz  Muslin 

Crepe  Organdy 

Dimity  Percale 


DYES  AND  DYEING 


57 


Cotton  materials  are  usually  printed  in  the  piece, 
but  in  goods  which  have  a  rainbow  effect,  the  yarn  is 
printed  at  intervals  with  different  colors  before  weav- 
ing. 

In  the  manufacture  of  cotton  cloth  one  manufacturer 
often  spins  the  yarn  and  makes  the  cloth,  which  in 
turn  is  sold  as  print  cloth  to  another  manufacturer, 
who  finishes  and  prints  it,  whereupon  it  is  bought  by 
the  jobbers  and  retailers.  There  are  other  manufac- 
turers who  spin  the  yam,  weave  the  cloth,  finish  it, 
print  it,  and  sell  it  direct  to  the  retailer. 

Block  Printing 

Cloth  was  first  printed  by  means  of  wooden  blocks 
and  this  process  is  still  used  to  some  extent.  These 
blocks  are  square  pieces  of  wood  of  various  sizes  ac- 
cording to  the  pattern  which  is  to  be  made  on  them. 
The  pattern  or  design  is  traced  on  the  wood  and  then 
the  wood  around  the  design  is  cut  away  leaving  it 
standing  out,  like  the  letters  on  a  rubber  stamp. 

A  pad  is  saturated  with  the  required  color.  The 
wood  block  design  is  pressed  against  the  pad  until  the 
color  is  taken  up.  The  block  is  then  placed  on  the 
cotton  cloth,  and  a  blow  from  a  mallet  impresses  the 
pattern  on  the  cloth. 

This  process  is  repeated  until  the  whole  surface  of 
the  cloth  has  been  covered.     It  is  an  expensive  process 


A 


!■ 


I 


M 


58 


COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 


because  of  the  time  which  is  required  in  printing. 

Machine  Printing 

The  work  of  printing  can  be  accomplished  in  much 
less  time  now  by  machines  in  such  ways  as ; 

1.  Direct  printing 

2.  Discharge 

3.  Resist 

Direct  Printing 

By  this  method  the  cloth  is  passed  between  polished 
copper  rollers,  3%  feet  wide  and  6  inches  in  diameter, 
on  which  the  design  or  pattern  is  engraved  over  the 
entire  surface.  If  different  colors  are  required  there 
is  a  roller  for  each  color  that  is  in  the  pattern. 

The  cloth  is  first  singed  or  gassed  to  remove  the 
short  fibers,  and  frequently  it  is  bleached,  especially 
if  a  white  material  is  to  be  printed. 

The  cloth  then  passes  over  a  central  roller  or  heated 
drum  around  which  the  engraved  rollers  are  fastened. 

The  cloth  comes  in  contact  with  each  roller  in  turn. 
Each  roller  has  its  own  design  and  comes  in  contact 
with  its  own  color,  which  is  in  a  trough  just  below 
the  roller,  impressing  it  upon  the  cloth.  A  strip  of 
steel  called  the  doctor  removes  the  color  from  all  parts 
of  the  roller  except  the  design. 

Sometimes  a  mordant  is  required  to  fix  some  part 


DYES  AND  DYEING 


59 


of  the  design.  The  dye  may  be  mixed  with  a  power- 
ful mordant  but  the  colors  are  not  so  fast  as  when 
mordanted  afterwards. 

Discharge 

Another  method  of  printing  is  by  discharge.  In 
this  method  color  is  removed  by  a  chemical  from  goods 
which  has  been  already  dyed  in  the  piece,  thus  leaving 
a  white  pattern,  which  may  be  printed  over  again  in 
another  color  if  desired. 

Copper  rollers  with  engraved  designs  are  also  used, 
but  they  come  in  contact  with  chemicals  instead  of 
dyes,  removing  the  color  as  the  cloth  passes  between 

them. 

Sometimes  the  chemical  used  in  printing  the  pat- 
tern is  too  strong  and  weakens  the  cloth.  For  in- 
stance, polka  dots  in  cheap  goods  have  been  known  to 
drop  out  entirely  before  the  cloth  was  worn  out. 

Resist 

In  this  method  a  chemical  is  stamped  on  a  plain 
white  cloth  and  the  cloth  afterwards  dyed.  The  dye 
has  no  effect  on  the  pattern  which  has  the  chemical 
on  it,  while  the  rest  of  the  cloth  will  be  dyed. 

Thickened  Dyes 

Practically  the  same  dyes  are  used  in  printing  as 


( 


6o 


COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 


in  dyeing,  except  that  in  printing  the  dye  must  be 
thickened  as  it  is  used  in  the  form  of  a  paste  instead 
of  a  liquid.  The  materials  used  in  thickening  are 
starch,  gum  arable,  gum  tragacanth,  and  dextrin. 


Chapter  IX 

COTTON  FABRICS 

Classification 

Only  the  staple  fabrics  are  mentioned  in  the  list 
below.  There  are  many  fancy  materials  with  trade 
names  which  appear  each  year  but  as  these  are  con- 
stantly changing  it  seems  best  to  consider  only  the 
fabrics  which  are  always  to  be  found  on  the  shelves. 

Batiste 

This  is  named  from  the  inventor,  Jean  Baptiste,  a 
French  linen  weaver.  Batiste  was  originally  a  linen 
fabric,  fine  and  sheer,  either  plain  or  printed.  It  is 
now  usually  woven  of  a  fine  quality  of  cotton  yam  in 
different  grades  of  material.  It  is  used  for  dresses 
and  fine  underwear,  and  the  coarser  grades  are  used 
for  linings. 

Calico 

The  name  comes  from  Calicut,  India,  where  it  was 

first  printed.     It  is  a  coarse,   cheap,  cotton   fabric 

printed  with  a  design  on  one  side  only.     As  it  is  cheap, 

6i 


I 


62 


COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 


the  colors  are  often  not  fast  and  fade  when  laundered. 
It  is  used  for  wrappers,  morning  dresses,  shirt  waists, 
and  aprons. 

Cambric 

This  was  first  made  in  Cambrai,  France,  from  which 
it  receives  its  name.  It  was  originally  made  of  fine 
linen  threads  and  was  imitated  in  cotton  by  the  Scotch 
people  who  called  it  cambric  muslin.  It  is  woven  of 
fine  cotton  yams  and  carefully  finished  by  bleaching 
and  calendering.  It  is  used  for  infants'  dresses  and 
underwear.     One  make  is  named  Berkeley  cambric. 

Canton  Flannel 

This  is  so  called  from  Canton,  China,  because  it 
was  first  imported  into  England  from  China.  It  is 
also  called  cotton  flannel.  It  is  made  of  soft  twisted 
yarns  woven  with  a  twill  weave  and  has  a  nap  raised 
on  one  side.  It  is  finished  as  unbleached  or  bleached 
canton  flannel  and  is  dyed  in  plain  colors.  It  may  be 
used  for  winter  undergarments  white  or  unbleached. 
When  dyed  it  may  be  used  for  interlinings  or 
draperies. 

Challis 

This  is  an  inexpensive  cotton  fabric  of  plain  weave 
and  printed  pattern.  It  varies  considerably  in  quality 
and  price.     A  cheap,  rather  coarse  grade  is  used  for 


COTTON  FABRICS 


63 


covers  for  comfortables,  kimonos,  etc.,  while  the  better 
qualities  are  used  for  dresses  and  dressing  sacques. 

Chambray 

The  name  also  comes  from  Cambrai,  the  French 
city,  where  the  material  was  originally  made  of  linen 
yarn.  It  is  a  plain  gingham  with  a  colored  warp  and 
white  weft  or  filling,  which  gives  a  blended  or  softened 
effect.  It  is  woven  with  a  plain  weave  of  finer  yarns. 
In  the  finishing  it  is  stiffened  with  starch  and  then 
calendered.  It  is  used  for  dresses,  aprons,  shirtings, 
etc. 

Cheese-Cloth 

This  was  originally  used  for  covering  cheese.  It 
is  a  cheap,  thin  fabric,  either  bleached  or  unbleached. 
It  is  used  for  cheap,  fancy  dresses  when  a  draped  effect 
is  wanted;  it  dyes  easily,  drapes  nicely  for  decora- 
tions, and  is  unsurpassed  for  cheapness  and  pleasing 
effect. 

Corduroy 

The  name  is  derived  from  the  French  corde-du-roi, 
meaning  a  king's  cord.  The  material  was  first  made 
in  France  in  the  seventeenth  century,  for  the  king's 
huntsmen.  At  the  present  time  it  is  made  principally 
in  England. 

Corduroy  is  a  cotton  fabric  made  by  pile  weaving. 


ii 


I 


64 


COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 


the  pile  being  in  the  weft  or  filling.  Sometimes  only 
one  weft,  making  both  the  pile  and  the  foundation 
weave,  is  used.  For  the  better  grades  two  wefts  are 
used.  One  is  thrown  up,  forming  loops  for  the  pile, 
where  the  cords  are  to  appear;  the  other  is  for  the 
foundation  weave  only,  and  is  used  both  for  the  cords 
and  the  furrows  between.  If  the  loops  in  the  center 
of  the  cord  are  longer  than  those  at  the  sides  a  rounded 
effect  is  given  the  cord.  After  weaving,  the  loops  are 
cut  on  a  special  machine.  The  material  is  then 
sheared  and  singed  for  a  smooth  surface  and  dyed  in 
the  piece.     The  width  is  about  27  inches. 

Corduroy  is  used  for  women's  skirts  and  suits  and 
for  boys'  and  men's  suits  and  trousers  when  rough 
and  hard  wear  is  required.  It  is  also  used  for  up- 
holstery. 

Crepe  or  Crepon 

These  are  fine  muslins  with  a  crinkled  effect,  which 
is  produced  by  an  adaptation  of  the  mercerization 
process.  Some  of  the  yarns  used  in  weaving  are 
coated  with  gum  or  gelatin  while  others  are  not. 
After  weaving  the  cloth  is  treated  with  caustic  soda 
which  has  no  effect  on  the  coated  yarns  but  the  un- 
protected ones,  usually  the  weft,  shrink,  crinkling  the 
cloth.  It  is  used  for  dresses,  fancy  aprons,  children's 
clothes,  etc. 


COTTON  FABRICS 


65 


Damask  (Cotton) 

This  is  a  cheap  fabric  woven  to  imitate  linen  damask. 
It  is  used  in  the  same  way  as  linen  damask  for  table 
cloths,  napkins,  towels,  etc. 

Denim 

Denim  is  a  heavy  material  with  a  twill  weave,  dyed 
in  plain  colors  or  with  stripes  and  checks.  It  is  used 
for  men's  overalls,  jumpers,  and  blouses.  Art  denim, 
a  finer  and  better  quality,  is  used  for  petticoats,  furni- 
ture coverings,  sofa  cushions,  draperies,  and  decora- 
tive purposes. 

Dimity 

Dimity  is  a  fine  cotton  fabric  characterized  by  small 
cords  running  lengthwise,  forming  stripes,  checks,  or 
plaids.    It  is  used  for  waists,  children's  dresses,  etc. 

Drilling 

(See  "Linings,"  Chapter  X.) 

Duck  (Cotton) 

Duck  is  a  stout,  heavy  material  made  in  different 
weights,  finished  as  bleached  or  unbleached  and  either 
dyed  or  printed.  It  has  a  plain  weave  but  two  threads 
of  the  warp  are  laid  close  together  and  treated  as  one 
in  the  weaving.  The  width  is  usually  from  28  inches 
to  30  inches. 


: ; 


66 


COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 


It  is  used  for  women's  suits,  men's  trousers,  etc. 
The  dark  colored  material  is  used  for  overalls  and 
jumpers.  In  fancy  stripes  it  is  used  for  awnings  and 
in  lighter  weight  for  women's  skirts  and  suits. 

Flannelette 

This  is  a  cotton  fabric  having  a  slight  nap  on  one 
side.  In  the  weaving,  a  soft,  loose  thread  is  used  for 
the  filling  in  order  that  the  nap  may  be  easily  raised 
as  the  teeth  of  the  napping  rollers  pass  over  it.  The 
colors  and  patterns  are  printed  on  the  material.  It  is 
used  for  wrappers,  kimonos,  etc. 

Galatea 

Galatea  is  a  strong,  firm,  heavy  fabric  with  a  satin 
or  a  twill  weave.  It  is  dyed  in  plain  colors  or  it  may 
have  printed  patterns.  It  is  used  for  middy  blouses, 
skirts,  children's  dresses,  etc. 

Gingham 

The  name  comes  from  Guingamp,  France,  where  it 
was  first  manufactured.  The  material  was  originally 
brought  to  Europe  from  India.  It  is  a  fabric  with  a 
plain  weave  made  in  stripes,  plaids,  or  checks  of  two 
or  more  colors.  The  yarn  is  dyed  before  weaving.  A 
wide  range  of  materials  is  sold  under  this  head  from 
the  checked  apron  ginghams  made  of  coarse  yams,  to 
the  better  goods  made  of  fine  yarns  in  most  artistic 


COTTON  FABRICS 


67 


colorings  and  designs.  It  is  used  for  dresses  for 
women  and  children  and  in  the  coarser  grades  for 
aprons. 

Huckaback  (Cotton) 

The  word  huckaback  comes  from  huckster  and  back. 
The  huckster  or  pedler  is  a  man  who  carries  his  wares 
on  his  back.  It  is  a  coarse  material  made  of  soft 
twisted  cotton  yams.  It  is  finished  to  look  like  linen 
huckaback  and  closely  resembles  the  coarsest  weave  of 
the  linen  material.  In  width  it  ranges  from  18  to  27 
inches.     It  is  used  for  coarse  toweling. 

India  Linen 

This  is  a  fine,  bleached  cotton  lawn  having  consider- 
able dressing  in  the  finish.  The  width  is  from  30  to 
36  inches.  It  sometimes  comes  in  colors.  It  is  used 
for  summer  dresses,  and  for  infants'  and  children's 
wear. 

Indian  Head 

This  name  is  given  to  a  cheap,  heavy,  white  fabric 
which  wears  well,  looks  well,  and  launders  well.  It 
is  used  for  skirts  and  dresses. 

Jaconet 

This  is  a  thin,  soft  variety  of  muslin  somewhat 
heavier  than  cambric.     It  is  a   full-bleached  cotton 


68 


COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 


with  a  plain  weave.  It  is  made  with  both  a  hard  and 
a  soft  finish.  The  hard  finish  is  obtained  by  first 
mangling  and  then  sizing  with  pure  corn-starch  after 
which  the  fabric  is  glossed  by  passing  it  twice  through 
the  calendering  machine.  The  soft  finish  is  produced 
similarly  except  that  less  starch  is  used  and  the  goods 
are  calendered  only  once.  This  material  is  used 
for  summer  dresses,  for  infants'  and  children's  wear, 
etc. 

Khaki 

The  name  comes  from  the  Hindoo  word  meaning 
dust  or  clay  colored.  It  is  a  variety  of  cotton  drilling 
dyed  clay-color  or  a  yellowish-brown.  It  is  a  strong 
material  made  from  long  staple  cotton  and  woven  with 
double  and  twist  twill.  It  is  finished  by  a  secret  pro- 
cess which  renders  it  water-proof.  It  shrinks  little 
in  laundering  and  requires  no  starch.  The  process 
was  invented  by  an  Englishman  named  Lehman.  It 
was  first  used  in  India  by  the  English  regiments  in 
1875  and  in  this  country  during  the  Spanish-American 
War  in  1898.  It  is  manufactured  in  England  and 
also  in  the  United  States  and  is  now  used  by  both  the 
United  States  Army  and  Navy.  The  government  re- 
quires that  the  best  American  cotton  be  used,  that  the 
material  shall  have  no  singeing  but  shall  be  soft, 
smooth,  and  water-proof  and  that  the  weave  be  a  twill 


COTTON  FABRICS 


69 


with  not  less  than  32  twills  to  the  inch.     It  is  used 
also  for  skirts  and  suits. 

Lawn 

The  name  comes  from  the  town  of  Laon,  France. 
One  authority  contends  that  it  received  its  name  from 
the  cloth's  being  put  on  the  lawn  to  dry  instead  of 
the  coarse  grass.  It  is  a  thin,  sheer  cotton  fabric  in 
plain  weave,  lace  stripes,  or  open  work  effects.  It  may 
be  printed  in  floral  patterns,  stripes  or  plaids,  or  it 
may  be  dyed  in  plain  colors  in  which  form  it  is  often 
used  as  a  lining  under  thin  white  materials.  It  is  used 
for  dresses,  aprons,  and  underwear.  The  varieties  of 
lawn  include:  Persian,  linen,  Victoria,  and  printed 
lawn. 

Linon 

This  is  a  fine,  plain-woven  firm  fabric  made  of  cot- 
ton yarns  but  treated  so  as  to  resemble  linen.  It  is  a 
good  wearing  material. 

Long  Cloth 

The  name  is  supposed  to  come  from  the  fact  that 
originally  only  long,  staple  cotton  was  used.  It  is  a 
fine,  soft,  bleached  material  usually  made  of  a  good 
grade  of  cotton  fiber.  It  is  woven  36  inches  wide  and 
usually  comes  in  12-yard  pieces.  It  is  used  almost 
entirely  for  undergarments  for  women  and  children. 


m 


4 


70 


COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 


Madras 

The  name  comes  from  Madras,  India,  where  it  was 
first  made.  Madras  gingham  is  a  white,  cotton  fabric 
ornamented  by  stripes,  both  white  and  colored.  The 
colored  stripes  are  usually  printed  on  the  material.  It 
is  used  for  women's  waists  and  men's  shirtings. 

Marquisette 

This  is  a  fine,  sheer  fabric  made  with  a  plain  weave 
and  an  open  mesh.     It  is  used  for  dresses. 

Mull 

The  name  is  from  the  Hindoo  mal  which  means 
soft.^  It  is^  a  soft,  thin,  sheer,  and  semitransparent 
fabric.  It  is  sometimes  dyed  in  light  colors,  but  it  is 
usually  full-bleached.  It  is  used  for  millinery,  as  it 
shirs  nicely  on  account  of  its  softness.  Swiss  mull  is 
the  same  material,  finished  with  a  stiffening. 

Mosquito  Netting 

This  is  a  coarse,  thin,  transparent  material.  It  is 
commonly  woven  with  a  single  threaded  warp,  and  a 
weft  of  two  loosely  twisted  strands  of  thread.  It  is 
dyed  in  all  colors  and  comes  in  bundles  of  12  pieces 
which  together  amount  to  icx)  yards.  It  is  used  for 
screens,  for  canopies  for  beds,  children's  carriages, 
cribs,  etc.,  as  a  protection  from  flies,  and  mosquitoes. 


, 


COTTON  FABRICS 


71 


Tarletan   is  the   same   kind   of   material   with   finer 
meshes. 

Muslin 

The  name  comes  from  Mosul,  a  city  in  Asia,  which 
produces  muslins  of  greatest  beauty.  It  is  a  general 
term  for  plain-woven  cotton  cloth.  It  may  be  coarse 
or  fine,  bleached,  imbleached,  or  half -bleached.  It  is 
used  for  underwear,  sheeting,  etc. 

Nainsook 

The  term  is  derived  from  the  Hindoo  nainsukh.  It 
is  a  thin,  fine,  white  cotton  material  of  plain  weave. 
It  is  used  principally  for  undergarments  and  infants' 
wear. 

Organdy 

Organdy  is  a  thin,  semitransparent  material  known 
by  its  stiffness  or  crispness  and  bright,  clear  finish. 
The  material  must  be  very  carefully  laundered.  It  is 
a  plain  weave  material,  although  sometimes  stripes  or 
checks  may  be  woven  in.  It  is  also  printed  with  de- 
licate designs  and  sometimes  dyed  in  plain  light  colors. 
It  is  used  for  dresses  and  is  especially  attractive  over 
colored  slips  for  evening  or  for  bridesmaid  dresses. 

Osnaburg 

The  name  was  first  applied  to  a  coarse  material 


H 


yuyl 


., 


72 


COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 


made  in  Osnaburg,  Hanover.  The  name  as  now  used 
applies  to  a  coarse  cotton  sheeting  in  imitation  of 
linen.  The  goods  were  originally  made  in  plain 
colors  only,  then  stripes,  plaids,  and  checks  were 
introduced. 

Most  of  these  sheetings  are  woven  in  the  southern 
mills.  No  finishing  processes  are  required  after  weav- 
ing except  calendering,  although  some  of  the  finer 
grades  have  a  slight  dressing.  The  sheetings  are 
folded  in  yard  lengths,  then  doubled  over  in  three 
folds  and  secured  by  strings  at  the  edges  like  muslin 
and  other  domestics.  They  are  packed  in  burlaps  and 
hooped  with  iron.  The  higher  grades,  woven  of  finer 
yams  and  slightly  dressed,  are  rolled  on  boards  and 
ornamented  with  paper  bands.  These  are  packed  in 
cases  instead  of  bales. 

Outing  Flannel 

This  is  a  cotton  fabric  having  a  nap  on  both  sides. 
It  is  woven  with  a  soft  loose  thread  and  the  nap  is 
raised  by  passing  the  cloth  between  cylinders  covered 
with  card  clothing.  It  is  used  for  nightgowns,  petti- 
coats, infants'  wear,  etc. 

Percale 

This  is  a  firmly  woven  fabric  containing  consider- 
able dressing  but  not  much  gloss.  It  is  made  in  dif- 
ferent qualities,  some  of  the  cheaper  qualities  being 


COTTON  FABRICS 


73 


practically  the  same  as  calico.  It  is  usually  known  by 
its  printed  figures  and  printed  stripes  and  plaids,  but 
it  also  is  sold  in  plain  white  or  colors.  It  is  from  28 
to  36  inches  in  width.  It  is  used  for  dresses,  shirt 
waists,  wrappers,  aprons,  children's  dresses,  and  men's 
and  boys'  shirts. 

Pique 

Pique  is  a  heavy  corded  or  figured  cotton  fabric, 
the  cords  usually  extending  across  the  cloth  from 
selvage  to  selvage.  It  comes  only  in  white.  A  lighter 
weight  quality  with  lighter  cords  is  sometimes  figured 
or  printed.  It  is  used  for  skirts,  dresses,  children's 
coats,  collars  and  cuffs,  vests,  etc. 

Poplin 

This  is  a  fabric  having  a  fine  cord  across  the  cloth, 
the  cord  being  produced  by  a  fine  warp  thread  and  a 
soft,  heavier  filling  thread.  It  is  used  for  dresses, 
waists,  and  skirts. 

Ratine 

This  is  a  fabric  woven  with  small  tufts  on  the  sur- 
face with  spaces  between  or  with  loops,  as  in  terry 
weaving  (see  "Terry  Cloth,"  below).  It  is  used  for 
dresses  and  skirts. 

Shirting 

Shirting  is  a  general  term  for  fabrics  which  are 


liiiuil 


h 


74 


COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 


especially  suitable  for  shirts.  It  may  be  plain  bleached 
muslin  which  comes  36  inches  wide,  but  more  often 
it  is  a  strong  cotton  material  with  printed  or  woven 
patterns  in  stripes. 

Swiss 

The  term  comes  from  Switzerland  where  Swiss  was 
first  woven.  It  is  a  thin,  pure  white,  semitrans- 
parent  muslin  having  considerable  dressing  in  the 
finish.  It  is  woven  plain  or  with  dots  or  patterns  at 
regular  intervals.     It  is  used  for  dresses,  aprons,  etc. 

Tarlatan 

This  is  a  thin,  transparent  muslin  finished  with 
considerable  dressing.  It  is  rather  coarse  in  quality, 
with  a  plain  weave.  It  comes  54  inches  wide  in  white 
and  cream  color  and  is  also  piece-dyed.  It  is  used  for 
children's  dresses,  window  screens,  and  fancy  work. 

Terry  Cloth 

This  is  a  coarse,  rough  cotton  fabric  which  has  a 
looped  pile  surface  made  with  two  sets  of  warp  threads, 
one  called  the  ground  warp  and  the  other  the  pile  or 
terry  warp,  which  is  used  to  form  the  loops.  These 
warp  threads  are  wound  on  separate  beams.  The 
ground  warp  is  kept  at  a  regular  tension  all  the  time, 
while  the  pile  warp  is  arranged  so  that  it  can  be  made 
slack  to  form  the  loops.    After  leaving  the  loom  there 


COTTON  FABRICS 


75 


is  practically  no  finishing  process  for  the  cloth.  This 
process  was  invented  by  Samuel  Holt  of  England  in 
1848.  In  1864  he  left  London  and  began  the  manu- 
facture of  the  cloth  in  Paterson,  New  Jersey.  It  is 
used  for  bath  towels,  bath  robes,  and  wash  cloths. 

Ticking 

Ticking  is  a  strong  material  with  a  twill  weave 
having  lengthwise  colored  stripes  of  blue,  red,  brown, 
etc.  The  width  ranges  from  2y  to  60  inches.  The 
standard  width  of  bed  ticking  is  36  inches. 

The  cheap  grades  are  used  mostly  for  bed  ticking, 
mattresses,  and  pillows.  The  better  grades  are  made 
of  fine  yams  woven  with  a  satin  twill.  Harmonious 
colors  and  the  satin  luster  of  the  surface  make  a  ma- 
terial suitable  for  many  purposes  besides  mattresses 
and  pillows,  such  as  fancy  work,  fancy  aprons,  bags, 
shirts. 

Tucking 

Tucking  is  fine,  white  cotton  goods  of  lawn,  muslin, 
or  cambric,  with  rows  of  tucks  stitched  across,  either 
close  together  over  the  entire  surface  or  in  clusters. 
It  is  used  for  skirts,  underwear,  waists,  yokes,  trim- 
ming, etc. 

Velveteen 

The  name  comes  from  the  Italian  velluto  di  cotone. 


I 


76 


COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 


It  IS  a  cotton  fabric  made  in  imitation  of  velvet.  It 
is  usually  heavier  and  wider  than  velvet.  Velveteen 
was  first  manufactured  in  England  about  the  last  of 
the  sixteenth  century  and  has  never  been  made  to  any 
extent  in  the  United  States.  It  is  manufactured  prin- 
cipally in  Manchester,  England,  and  in  Crefeld,  Bar- 
men, and  Elberfeld,  Germany. 

Velveteen  is  woven  by  means  of  one  warp  thread 
and  two  weft  or  filling  threads,  whereas  velvet  is 
woven  by  means  of  two  warp  threads  and  one  filling 
thread.  In  the  weaving  of  velveteen  one  weft  thread 
is  used  in  forming  the  pile  which  is  made  with  a  float 
or  satin  weave,  while  the  other  weft  thread  forms  with 
the  warp  either  a  plain  or  a  twill  weave  and  binds  the 
pile  weft  in  tightly  so  that  when  this  pile  thread  is  cut 
later  it  may  be  brushed,  dressed,  and  sheared  to  give 
the  appearance  of  velvet.  It  is  dyed  after  this.  It 
is  used  for  dresses,  suits,  and  hats. 

Voile 

This  is  a  semitransparent  fabric  made  with  a  plain, 
somewhat  open  weave.  It  may  be  plain,  striped,  or 
figured. 


Ill 


Chapter  X 

THE  LINING  COUNTER 

Attractiveness  of  Linings 

In  passing  the  lining  counter  one  is  attracted  by  the 
display,  which  rivals  the  Silk  Department  in  its  pro- 
fusion of  printed  silk  design. 

The  mercer ization  of  cotton  has  made  possible  the 
marketing  of  these  silk-like  materials  which  indeed 
wear  better  than  ordinary  lining  silk.  Owing  to  the 
high  cost  of  silk  only  an  inferior  grade  is  used  for 
linings,  so  that  the  finer  mercerized  linings  which  look 
and  feel  like  silk  have  to  a  great  extent  replaced  the 
genuine  article. 

Varieties  of  Linings 

Linings  for  men's  garments  are  serge,  silesia, 
farmer's  satin,  light-weight  silks,  and  satins. 

Linings  for  women's  garments  are  cambric,  drilling, 
percaline,  silesia,  sateen,  silk,  and  various  mercerized 
materials. 

Buckram 

Buckram  is  named  from  Bokhara,  Tartary,  where 

77 


i 


78 


COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 


it  was  first  made.  It  is  a  coarse,  very  stiff  material 
usually  linen  but  sometimes  cotton,  heavily  sized  with 
glue  or  gum.  It  is  used  as  a  stiffening  to  keep  certain 
parts  of  a  garment  in  shape. 

Cambric 

Cambric  is  a  cheap,  thin,  cotton  material,  both  dull 
and  glaze  finished.  The  latter,  called  paper  cambric, 
is  often  sold  from  rolls.  Cambric  is  dyed  in  plain 
colors.  It  was  formerly  used  for  lining  skirts.  It 
may  be  used  as  a  lining  for  any  heavier  material  where 
the  lining  does  not  show. 

Canvas 

Canvas  is  named  from  the  Latin  cannabis,  meaning 
literally  "  a  hempen  cloth."  It  is  a  heavy,  thick,  un- 
bleached cloth  of  plain  weave  and  may  be  either  linen 
or  cotton.  When  used  for  linings  it  is  stiffened  with 
gum.  It  is  used  as  a  stiffening  for  coats,  collars,  etc., 
the  poorer  grades  being  utilized  for  package  coverings, 
ship  sails,  mail  bags,  etc. 

Crinoline 

This  is  a  coarse,  cotton  material,  made  stiff  by  a 
heavy  sizing.  It  was  originally  made  of  horse  hair 
and  linen  and  was  then  used  for  stiffening  skirts  to 
make  them  stand  out.     Its  present  use  is  for  inter- 


THE  LINING  COUNTER 


79 


linings  of  collars,  cuffs,  etc.,  where  only  a  little  stiff- 
ness is  needed. 

Drilling 

Drilling  is  a  stout  cotton  material  with  a  twill 
weave.  It  ma>  be  bleached,  unbleached,  or  dyed  in 
plain  colors.  It  is  used  for  dress  linings,  and  for 
pockets  and  linings  in  men's  clothing. 

Farmer's  Satin 

Farmer's  satin  is  also  called  Italian  cloth.  It  is 
made  of  cotton  or  more  often  of  cotton  warp  and  wool 
filling.  It  is  woven  with  a  satin  weave  and  finished 
with  a  luster  to  resemble  satin.  It  is  dyed  in  plain 
colors  and  in  black.  It  is  used  chiefly  as  a  lining 
material  for  men's  coats  and  vests,  and  to  some  extent 
for  women's  petticoats. 

Interlining 

This  is  a  layer  of  material  placed  between  the  out- 
side cloth  and  the  lining  proper,  to  give  added  warmth 
to  the  garment,  or  as  a  stiffening  to  preserve  the  shape. 
For  warmth,  cotton  flannel  is  sometimes  used  for 
wadding.  For  stiffening,  crinoline,  buckram,  canvas, 
wigan,  or  haircloth  may  be  used. 

Percaline 

This  is  a  lining  material  of  fine,  light  weight.     It 


8o 


COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 


■I 


is  dyed  in  plain  and  fancy  colors  and  finished  with  a 
gloss  and  watered  effect.  It  is  36  inches  wide  and 
double  folded;  that  is,  folded  in  the  middle  with  the 
edges  together.  It  is  used  as  a  lining  for  waists  and 
dresses. 

Quilted  Lining 

Quilted  lining  is  a  heavy  lining,  composed  of  a  layer 
of  cotton  wadding  between  two  pieces  of  thin  material, 
the  three  being  held  together  by  quilting  stitches.  Silk 
and  satin  are  used  for  the  outer  material  in  the  better 
grades,  sateen  in  the  cheaper  grades.  It  is  used  as  a 
lining  for  winter  wraps  and  coats. 

Sateen 

This  is  a  fine  cotton  fabric  known  by  its  glossy  satin- 
like finish  and  softness.  It  has  a  close  twill  weave  and 
is  bleached  white,  dyed  in  plain  colors,  or  printed  with 
figures.  It  comes  in  various  widths  and  qualities. 
Its  principal  use  is  for  linings,  but  when  printed  with 
figures  to  resemble  silk  it  is  used  for  dresses. 

Silesia 

The  name  comes  from  Silesia,  a  province  of  Prussia, 
where  it  was  first  made.  It  is  a  thin,  closely  woven 
cotton  fabric  with  a  twill  weave,  finished  with  a  glazed 
surface  in  black,  white,  and  plain  colors.  It  is  used 
for  linings. 


THE  LINING  COUNTER 


81 


Wadding 

Wadding  is  a  thin  sheet  of  carded  wool  or  cotton. 
The  term  has  been  in  common  use  since  the  seventeenth 
century.  Cotton  wadding  is  a  sheet  of  raw  cotton 
similar  to  batting,  only  much  thinner,  with  glazed 
outer  surfaces.  Usually  it  is  32  x  36  inches  and  comes 
in  white  and  various  colors,  slate,  blue,  green,  yellow, 
etc.  It  is  used  for  interlinings  of  all  kinds,  for  stuff- 
ing out  to  give  a  rounded  effect,  and  for  quilting  into 
linings. 

Wigan 

Wigan  is  named  after  the  town  of  Wigan  in  Eng- 
land. It  is  a  very  stiff  and  open  cotton  material 
usually  dyed  in  dull  shades  of  drab,  gray,  and  black. 
It  is  32  inches  wide.  A  few  years  ago  it  was  used 
extensively  for  stiffening  the  bottoms  of  dresses. 


. 


Hi 


Chapter  XI 

HISTORY  AND  CENTERS  OF  COTTON 

INDUSTRY 

History  of  Cotton 

It  cannot  be  definitely  stated  when  cotton  was  first 
used  for  clothing.  Cotton  was  known  and  used  in 
Egypt  2,000  years  ago.  It  was  grown  in  India  and 
manufactured  into  cloth  at  a  very  early  date.  The 
first  record  we  have  of  it  is  about  800  b.  c.  but  it  was 
then  already  a  well-developed  industry.  The  Greeks 
and  Romans  used  cotton,  but  only  for  garments  of 
luxury. 

It  is  said  that  cotton  was  first  cultivated  in  China 
as  a  garden  plant  and  it  was  not  until  the  thirteenth 
century  that  cloth  was  manufactured  there. 

India  continued  to  manufacture  the  best  cotton  ma- 
terial, the  fineness  and  texture  of  which  no  other 
country  could  approach,  and  it  held  this  place  until  the 
invention  of  machinery  in  England  in  the  last  part  of 
the  eighteenth  century. 

Cotton  in  America 

Columbus,  when  he  discovered  America  in  1492, 

82 


CENTERS  OF  COTTON  INDUSTRY 


83 


found  that  the  inhabitants  were  using  cotton,  and 
Cortez,  the  Spanish  conqueror  of  Mexico  in  15 19, 
found  that  the  Mexicans  knew  how  to  weave  the  finest 
fabrics  of  cotton.  Cotton  was  first  cultivated  in 
America  by  some  Virginia  colonists. 

Centers  of  the  Cotton  Industry 

Manchester,  in  Lancashire  County,  England,  is  the 
chief  cotton  spinning  and  weaving  center  of  the  world. 
Preston,  Oldham,  Bolton,  and  other  towns  in  Lan- 
cashire and  Cheshire  are  other  centers  of  the  industry. 
Glasgow,  in  Scotland,  and  Yorkshire,  England,  are 
large  producers  of  colored  cotton. 

France  manufactures  the  finest  cotton  goods. 

In  the  New  England  States,  New  Bedford,  Mass., 
is  the  center  for  fine  goods.  Fall  River,  Mass.,  is  the 
largest  cotton  manufacturing  city  in  the  United  States. 
Rhode  Island,  as  well  as  Massachusetts,  has  extensive 
cotton  manufactories. 

Charlotte,  North  Carolina,  is  the  center  of  the  cotton 
industry  of  the  South.  Cotton  is  also  manufactured 
extensively  in  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  ajnd  Alabama. 

The  list  of  cotton  manufacturers  given  in  the  Ap- 
pendix shows  the  large  number  of  factories  in  these 
localities. 

Factories  must  be  located  where  there  is  a  moist 
atmosphere  and  a  good  water  supply. 


Chapter  XII 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  STOCK  OF  COTTON 
GOODS  DEPARTMENTS 

A  —  Domestics  (Non-Imported  Goods) 

1.  Materials 

Calico 

Cambric 

Canton  Flannel 

Cheese-Cloth 

Denim 

Galatea 

Gingham 

Lawn 

Longcloth 

Muslin 

Nainsook 

Percale 

Sateen 

Sheeting 

Pillow-Case  Tubing 

2.  Weaves 

Plain 
Twilled 
Satin 
Pile 

3.  Colors 

White 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STOCK  85 

Plain  Colors 

Stripes 

Plaids  and  Checks 

Figures  (Printed) 

B  —  White  Goods   (Imported  and  Domestic  Manu- 
facture) 

I.  Materials 
Batiste 
Corduroy 
Crepe 
Dimity 
Flaxon 
Gaberdine 
India  Linen 
Lawn 
Madras 
Marquisette 
MuU 
Organdy 
Persian  Lawn 
Pique 
Poplin 
Swiss 
Voile 
Novelties 

C  —  Dress   Goods    (Imported  and  Domestic   Manu- 
facture) 

I.  Materials 
Cheviot 
Chiffon 
Corduroy 
Crepe 

Crepe  de  Chine 
Dimity 


t  ■ 


86 


D  — 


COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 

Gingham 
Japanese  Crepe 
Khaki 
Lawn 

Marquisette 
Mull 

Organdy 

Pique 

Poplin 

Swiss 

Voile 

Novelties 

2.  Weaves 

Plain 
Twill 
Jacquard 
Fancy 

3.  Colors 

Plain 

Woven  (Plaids,  Checks,  Stripes) 

Mixed 

Figured  (Woven,  Printed) 

Linings  (Domestic  Manufacture) 
I.  Materials 
Buckram 
Cambric 
Canvas 

Cotton  Wadding 
Crinoline 
Drilling 
Heatherbloom 
Interlinings 
Lawn  (Colored) 
Moreen 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STOCK 

Near-Silk 

Novelty  Linings  (Imitations  of  Silk) 

Percaline 

Quilted  Linings 

Sateen 

Silesia 

2.  Weaves 

Plain 
Satin 
Twilled 
Damask 

3.  Colors 

White 

Plain 

Stripes 

Mixed 

Figured  (Woven,  Printed) 

E  —  Flannels  (Cotton) 

1.  Kinds 

Canton  Flannel 
Eiderdown 
Flannelette 
Mixtures 

(a)  Viyella  (Cotton  and  Wool) 

(b)  Scotch  (Largely  Cotton) 
Outing  Flannel 

2.  Weaves 

Plain 
Twill 

3.  Knitted 

4.  Colors 

Plain 

Printed  (Stripes,  Checks,  Figures) 


87 


1 


1^ 


)  • 


d 


88      COTTON  GOODS  DEPARTMENT 

F  —  Blankets  and  Comfortables  (Domestic  and  Im- 
ported Manufacture) 

1.  Blankets 

Wool 

Cotton 

Wool  and  Cotton 

Imported  Novelties 

Summer  (All  Wool,  All  Cotton,  Cotton  and 

Wool) 
Honeycomb 
Indian 

2.  Comfortables 

Silkaline  Cover,  Cotton  Filling 
Silk  Mull  Cover,  Cotton  FilUng 
Jap  Silk  Cover,  Wool  Filling 
Satin  Cover,  Wool  Filling 
Satin  Cover,  Down  Filling 

3.  Mattress  Protectors 

4.  Bed  Spreads 

Plain  (Hemmed,  Fringed,  Scalloped) 

Fancy  Weaves 

Embroidered 

Printed 


Part  II— The  Linen  Departments 

Chapter  XIII 

INTRODUCTORY 
Linen  Display 

What  woman  is  not  attracted  to  the  Linen  Depart- 
ment, which  is  so  typical  of  the  comforts,  pleasures, 
and  intimacies  of  the  home  and  its  duties? 

In  the  modem  department  store,  beautiful  table- 
cloths are  displayed  on  tables,  just  as  they  will  appear 
in  the  home.  Doilies  of  endless  variety,  delicate  crea- 
tions of  crochet  and  lace,  dresser  scarfs,  sideboard 
covers,  tray  cloths,  handkerchiefs,  and  all  the  innu- 
merable varieties  of  useful  and  dainty  articles  of  which 
linen  is  made,  fascinate  customers  and  salespeople 
alike. 

Towels,  with  their  variegated  colors  and  designs, 
add  a  touch  of  color  to  the  display.  Bath  towels, 
large  and  small,  initialed,  crocheted,  or  simply 
hemmed,  are  shown,  together  with  wash  cloths  to 
match.     There  are  hand  towels  in  damask  or  hucka- 

89 


90 


LINEN  DEPARTMENT 


back,  smaller  guest  towels,  and  coarse  towels  for 
kitchen  and  pantry  use. 

At  another  counter  linen  materials  for  diflferent 
purposes  are  sold  by  the  yard,  many  housewives  pre- 
ferring to  buy  toweling,  etc.,  in  this  way  and  do  the 
finishing  themselves. 

At  other  counters  may  be  found  the  sheets  and  pil- 
low cases  which  are  more  often  of  cotton  than  of  linen, 
and  at  other  counters  the  counterpanes  and  bed  spreads, 
mostly  of  cotton. 

Divisions  of  the  Department 

In  the  large  department  stores  the  Linen  Department 
is  often  divided  in  the  following  way : 

1.  Linen  Yard  Goods 

2.  Toilet  Linen 

3.  Bed  Linen 

4.  Table  Linen 

5.  Fancy  Linens 


Chapter  XIV 

SOURCES  AND  PREPARATION  OF  LINEN 
FOR  MANUFACTURE 

Sources 

With  the  exception  of  some  of  the  crash  towelings 
which  are  made  in  this  country,  the  linen  goods  found 
in  the  Linen  Department  come  principally  from  Ireland, 
Belgium,  Holland,  France,  Germany,  Russia,  and  the 
Madeira  Islands.  Russia  raises  the  greatest  amount 
of  flax  from  which  linen  is  made,  but  Belgium  raises 
the  best  quality.  In  Ireland  and  Holland  where  the 
linen  industry  has  been  established  for  many  genera- 
tions the  people  have  become  expert  in  its  manufac- 
ture. The  war  has  seriously  affected  the  industry  and 
the  price  will  probably  be  high  for  several  years  to 
come. 

Much  money  has  been  spent  from  time  to  time  in  an 

effort  to  manufacture  linen  goods  in  this  country,  but 

failure  has  always  resulted,  for  two  reasons.     One  is 

that  much  hand  labor  is  required  which  in  this  country 

is  expensive.     Another  reason  is  that  the  climate  in 

the  United  States  is  not  so  well  suited  to  the  growth 

91 


hf 


92 


LINEN  DEPARTMENT 


and  development  of  flax,  as  a  very  moist  atmosphere  is 
needed. 

Characteristics  of  Linens  from  Various  Sources 

Irish  linen  is  white,  reliable,  and  enduring.  Old 
patterns  are  still  used.  Some  are  hand-woven,  an 
honest  method,  but  not  always  showy.  Irish  linen 
includes  the  table  linens,  cambrics,  lawns,  and  batistes. 
Belfast  is  the  center  of  the  Irish  linen  industry,  closely 
rivaled  by  Limerick,  Dublin,  and  Dimfermline. 

Scotch  linen  is  silver-white,  grass  bleached,  and 
lighter  in  weight  than  the  Irish.  The  designs  are  more 
showy,  and  the  prices  are  moderate.  Canvas  and 
tarpaulins  are  also  made  in  Scotland.  Dundee  and 
Aberdeen  are  the  manufacturing  centers. 

French  linen  is  of  exquisite  design  and  especially 
attractive.  The  thread  is  fine  and  round.  Besides 
table  linen  the  French  make  expensive  dress  goods  and 
embroidered  linens. 

Belgian  linen  contains  the  finest  fiber  in  the  world. 
It  has  more  dressing  than  Irish  linen  and  is  made  into 
table  linens,  twilled  fabrics,  diapers,  and  drillings. 
Ghent  is  the  main  flax-growing  district. 

German  linen  is  silver-white  and  of  high  g^ade. 
Dresden  produces  exquisite  designs  in  table  linen,  and 
in  printed  and  dyed  linen,  such  as  lunch  cloths  and 
napkins. 


PREPARATION  FOR  MANUFACTURE 


93 


Austrian  linen  is  like  the  German. 

Russian  linen  cracks,  perhaps  from  the  method  of 
bleaching. 

English  linens  are  the  heavier  qualities,  used  for 
toweling,  aprons,  etc.  Yorkshire,  Leeds,  and  Barns- 
ley  are  important  centers  of  production. 

Properties  of  Linen 

Regardless  of  the  country  from  which  the  flax  may 
come,  linen  has  many  distinctive  characteristics  which 
differentiate  it  from  all  other  fibers.  The  most  im- 
portant are  the  following : 

Absorption.     Linen  absorbs  water  quickly. 

Evaporation.  Water  evaporates  quickly  from  linen, 
making  it  good  for  toweling,  handkerchiefs,  and  wash 
cloths. 

.    Cleanliness,     It  does  not  soil  quickly.     Laundering 
increases  its  brilliancy  and  freshness. 

Strength.  It  is  the  strongest  of  the  vegetable  fibers. 
Therefore  it  wears  well.  Unbleached  linen  is  stronger 
than  bleached  of  the  same  weight.  It  is  heavier  than 
cotton. 

Smoothness,    It  is  smooth  and  soft. 

Fineness,  It  may  be  spun  to  a  most  delicate  thread, 
as  in  fine  lace. 

Luster.  Linen  has  a  luster  almost  as  fine  as  that  of 
silk.     This  is  seen  in  tablecloths. 


94 


LINEN  DEPARTMENT 


Dyes,  Linen  is  difficult  to  dye,  and  the  colors  often 
fade. 

The  Flax  Plant 

Flax  is  a  bast  fiber,  that  is,  a  fiber  taken  from  the 
stalk  of  the  plant.  It  is  found  just  under  the  outer 
bark.  A  damp  and  mild  climate  is  best,  not  only  for 
the  growth  of  the  plant,  but  also  for  the  manufactur- 
ing and  bleaching  of  the  linen  cloth.  Flax  is 
also  grown  for  its  seed,  from  which  linseed  oil  is 
made. 

Harvesting 

The  seeds  are  sown  in  the  spring.  If  for  fiber  pro- 
duction, they  are  sown  close  together  to  avoid  branch- 
ing; if  for  seed,  farther  apart.  The  harvesting  time 
for  fiber  is  the  latter  part  of  July  and  in  August  before 
the  seeds  have  ripened.  The  plant  grows  to  a  height 
of  about  three  feet  and  when  the  stalk  is  yellow  for 
about  three-fourths  of  its  length  the  plant  is  pulled  up 
by  hand  with  its  roots,  which  not  only  allows  a  greater 
length  of  stalk  but  prevents  the  sap  from  running  out. 
If  the  stalks  are  cut  a  part  of  the  sap  is  lost  and  the 
fiber  is  not  so  good.  The  plant  cannot  be  used  equally 
well  for  both  seed  and  fiber  because  the  stalk  is  too 
woody  after  the  plant  goes  to  seed;  but  the  woody 
fiber  may  be  used  for  twine  and  rope  or  woven  into 
coarse  material  such  as  dish  toweling. 


PREPARATION  FOR  MANUFACTURE 


95 


After  the  plant  is  pulled  the  dirt  is  shaken  off  the 
roots  and  the  stalks  are  tied  in  bundles. 

Flax  cannot  be  raised  on  the  same  ground  during 
successive  years.  Plantings  should  be  four  or  five 
years  apart  in  order  that  the  soil  may  fully  recover  its 
fertility. 

Processes  for  Removing  the  Fiber 

There  are  five  processes  for  removing  the  fiber  from 
the  stalk,  as  follows : 

Rippling 

Retting 

Drying 

Breaking 

Scutching 

Rippling  or  Threshing 

Rippling  is  a  process  of  removing  the  seeds  and 
leaves  from  the  dried  stalk  and  is  done  either  by  hand 
or  by  machine.  There  is  great  danger  of  injury  to 
the  fiber  if  this  is  not  done  carefully. 

If  it  is  done  by  hand,  the  flax  stalks  are  drawn 
through  a  sort  of  comb  with  iron  teeth  which  pulls  off 
the  seeds  and  leaves. 

If  it  is  done  by  machine,  the  seed  heads  are  removed 
by  being  crushed  between  rollers  and  the  flax  straw 
which  is  left  is  then  tied  into  bundles. 


96 


LINEN  DEPARTMENT 


Retting  (or  Rotting) 

This  process  decomposes  the  gum  which  holds  the 
woody  portion  of  the  plant  together.  When  this  gum 
is  dissolved  the  soft  inner  fiber  of  the  flax  can  be 
easily  removed  from  the  woody  covering.  There  are 
three  methods  of  retting: 

Dew  retting 
Cold  water  retting 
Chemical  retting 

Dew  Retting,  This  method  is  used  in  Russia  prin- 
cipally and  the  flax  is  usually  of  a  dark  color.  The 
flax  straw  is  spread  on  the  grass  from  2  to  8  weeks 
and  exposed  to  the  dew,  rain,  or  snow  which  removes 
the  gummy  substance. 

Cold  Water  Retting.  There  are  two  methods  of 
cold  water  retting: 

1.  Stagnant  water.  In  Ireland  bundles  of  the  flax 
straw  are  placed  in  pools  of  stagnant  water  and  left 
for  about  lo  days,  during  which  time  the  gum  decom- 
poses through  fermentation.  This  method  also  dark- 
ens the  flax. 

2.  Running  water.  In  Belgium  the  water  of  the 
river  Lys  is  especially  good  for  retting.  The  bundles 
of  flax  are  placed  in  the  water  or  in  crates  which  are 
kept  under  water  by  weights.  The  process  requires 
from  6  to  15  days  and  care  must  be  taken  to  remove  it 


PREPARATION  FOR  MANUFACTURE 


97 


from  the  water  at  just  the  right  time  or  the  fiber  will 
be  weakened.  The  flax  comes  out  a  good  cream  color. 
Chemical  Retting.  Several  processes  have  been  in- 
vented for  the  retting  of  flax  with  chemicals,  but  none 
of  them  have  yet  been  very  successful  as  they  weaken 
the  fiber  and  injure  its  color.  The  advantage  of 
chemical  retting  would  be  the  saving  of  time. 

Drying 

After  retting,  the  flax  is  taken  out  of  the  water  and 
spread  on  the  grass  to  dry. 

Breaking 

This  process  consists  of  beating  the  flax  by  hand  or 
passing  it  through  machines  with  grooved  or  fluted  rol- 
lers which  break  up  the  woody  outside  substance. 

Scutching 

The  flax  stalks  are  put  through  a  machine  with  re- 
volving blades  of  wood  which  beat  and  break  the  outer 
portion  still  more.  This  process  also  cleans  the  fibers 
from  the  wood  or  bark.  The  flax  is  then  tied  up  and 
baled  ready  for  market  or  for  the  spinning  mills. 


Chapter  XV 

PROCESS  OF  MANUFACTURE 

Spinning  Processes — Line  Spinning 

When  the  bales  of  flax  reach  the  spinning  mills  they 
must  be  opened  and'  put  through  the  following  clean- 
ing and  spinning  processes : 

Roughing 

Hackling 

Sorting 

Spreading 

Drawing 

Spinning 

Roughing 

A  handful  of  flax  is  passed  rapidly  over  a  sort  of 
comb  with  sharp  steel  points,  which  remove  the  re- 
maining straw,  dirt,  and  some  loose  fiber.  It  is  done 
by  hand.     (See  Figure  9.) 

Hackling 

This  is  a  machine  process  of  combing  the  fiber  still 
finer.     Often  it  is  passed  through  several  of  these 

98 


Courtesy  of  York  Street  Flax  Spinning  Company 
Figure  9.    Roughing  Flax 


Courtesy  of  York  Street  Flax  Spinning  Company 

Figure  10.     The  Spread  Board 


INTENTIONAL  SECOND  EXPOSURE 


Chapter  XV 

PROCESS  OF  MANUFACTURE 

Spinning  Processes  —  Line  Spinning 

When  the  bales  of  liax  reach  the  spinning  mills  they 
must  be  opened  and*  put  through  the  following  clean- 
ing and  spinning  processes : 

Roughing 

Hackling 

Sorting 

Spreading 

Drawing 

Spinning 

Roughing 

A  handful  of  flax  is  passed  rapidly  over  a  sort  of 
comb  with  sharp  steel  points,  which  remove  the  re- 
maining straw,  dirt,  and  some  loose  fiber.  It  is  done 
by  hand.     (See  Figure  9.) 

Hackling 

This  is  a  machine  process  of  combing  the  fiber  still 
finer.     Often  it  is  passed  through  several  of  these 

98 


Courtesy  of  York  Street  Flax  Spinning  Company 
Figure  9.     Roughing  Flax 


f 


Courtesy  of  York  Street  Flax  Spinning  Company 

Figure  10.     The  Spread  Board 


II 


^  fi 


PROCESS  OF  MANUFACTURE 


99 


machines,  each  one  combing  it  finer  than  the  last.  The 
short  fibers  which  are  broken  off  or  combed  out  arc 
the  tow  which  is  made  into  the  coarser  materials;  the 
long  fibers,  called  line,  make  the  finer  linens. 

Sorting 

Fibers  of  the  same  length  and  quality  are  then  put 
together. 

Spreading 

The  machine  for  this  process  is  called  the  spread 
board.  The  long  fiber  is  laid  in  bunches  on  traveling 
bands,  one  bunch  overlapping  the  other.  It  then 
passes  through  sets  of  rollers  which  draw  out  the 
fibers  into  one  continuous  length  and  produces  what  is 
called  a  ribbon  or  sliver.     (See  Figure  lo.) 

Drawing  and  Roving 

In  this  process  several  slivers  are  put  together, 
drawn  out  as  one,  and  twisted  slightly. 

Spinning 

This  is  the  final  process  which  converts  the  loose 
twisted  fibers  into  fine  twisted  yarns.  There  are 
three  ways  of  spinning: 

1.  Wet  spinning  is  the  process  by  which  the  yam 
passes  through  hot  water  before  being  twisted.  It 
yields  the  finest  yams. 

2.  Damp  spinning  is  the  process  by  which  the  yam 


lOO 


LINEN  DEPARTMENT 


comes  in  contact  with  a  wheel  damp  with  water.  By 
this  process  the  yam  is  not  quite  so  fine  as  in  wet 
spinning.  When  the  old-fashioned  spinning  wheels 
were  in  use  a  cup  of  water  was  often  fastened  to  the 
frame  or  placed  near  at  hand  so  that  the  flax  might  be 
moistened  as  it  was  drawn  out. 

3.  Dry  spinning  is  the  process  by  which  the  fibers 
are  spun  without  any  moisture.  Even  then  it  is  better 
to  have  a  moist  atmosphere.  The  coarsest  and  cheap- 
est yarns  are  made  by  this  process. 

After  being  spun,  the  yarn  is  made  into  skeins  or 
hanks  and  shipped  all  over  the  world  to  be  made  into 
cloth  or  thread. 

Weaving  Process 

Some  yams  are  boiled  and  some  are  bleached  be- 
fore weaving.  Yarns  intended  for  fine  white  linens, 
pillow-cases,  sheetings,  and  damasks  are  boiled  in 
order  to  make  the  cloth  firmer  and  tighter.  Yarns 
intended  for  glass  towels,  huckaback  towels,  etc.,  are 
bleached. 

Warping  and  threading  preparatory  to  weaving  are 
the  same  as  for  cotton,  except  that  the  yarn  is  given  a 
dressing  or  sizing  to  strengthen  it  for  the  weaving 
process. 

Weaving  linen  or  making  cloth  from  the  spun  y2Lm 
is  more  difficult  than  weaving  cotton  because  the  linen 


PROCESS  OF  IMANUFACTURE 


lOI 


fiber  is  not  so  elastic  as  cotton  and  is  more  apt  to 
break. 

Principal  Weaves 

The  principal  linen  weaves  are : 

Plain  weave  for  sheetings,  dresses,  embroidery 

linens,  etc. 
Twill  weave  for  drilling. 
Damask,  or  satin  weave    (Jacquard  loom)    for 

damask  table  linen. 

Weaving  Machines 

The  machinery  required  for  preparing  and  spinning 
fine  linen  is  very  expensive,  a  flax  spinning  mill  cost- 
ing about  four  times  as  much  as  a  cotton  mill.  Al- 
though the  machinery  is  not  very  different  from  that 
for  cotton  the  brittleness  of  the  flax  fiber  necessitates 
expensive  additions  to  stop  the  machine  automatically 
when  a  thread  is  broken. 

Machinery  for  manufacturing  linen  did  not  come 
into  use  for  a  number  of  years  after  the  invention  of 
cotton  machines,  until  these  difficulties  could  be  over- 
come. 

Finishing  Processes 

All  fabrics  after  leaving  the  loom  are  put  through 
certain  finishing  processes.     Probably  linen  requires 


I02 


LINEN  DEPARTMENT 


as  little  finishing  as  any  fiber.     The  finishing  processes 
which  bring  out  the  beauty  of  the  linen  are : 

Bleaching 

Beetling 

Calendering  or  Pressing 

These  processes  repeated  several  times  bring  out  the 
gloss.  Dressings  are  sometimes  used  for  the  cheaper 
linens  made  from  tow,  but  a  good  linen  requires  little 
dressing. 

Bleaching 

If  the  yam  was  unbleached  the  cloth  may  be 
bleached  after  weaving.  There  are  two  kinds  of 
bleaching:  grass  and  chemical. 

Grass  Bleaching,  By  this  method  the  linen,  brown 
or  yellow  in  color,  after  being  put  through  various 
processes  of  washing,  boiling  in  lime  and  also  soap 
baths,  is  laid  on  the  grass  to  whiten.  This  bleaching 
takes  from  six  to  eight  weeks.  During  this  time  the 
linen  is  often  taken  up,  put  through  the  different 
processes  of  washing,  and  returned  to  the  grass.  The 
place  where  the  linen  is  bleached  must  be  away  from 
smoke  and  dust  and  near  good,  pure  water.  Much  of 
the  Irish  linen  is  grass  bleached,  especially  the  finest 
qualities.  The  linen  bleached  in  this  way  is  soft  and 
white  and  has  better  wearing  qualities.     (See  Figure 


INTENTIONAL  SECOND  EXPOSURE 


I02 


LINEN  DEPARTMENT 


as  little  finishing  as  any  fiber.     The  finishing  processes 
which  bring  out  the  beauty  of  the  linen  are : 

Bleaching 

Beetling 

Calendering  or  Pressing 

These  processes  repeated  several  times  bring  out  the 
gloss.  Dressings  are  sometimes  used  for  the  cheaper 
linens  made  from  tow,  but  a  good  linen  requires  little 
dressing. 

Bleaching 

If  the  yarn  was  unbleached  the  cloth  may  be 
bleached  after  weaving.  There  are  two  kinds  of 
bleaching:  grass  and  chemical. 

Grass  Bleaching,  By  this  method  the  linen,  brown 
or  yellow  in  color,  after  being  put  through  various 
processes  of  washing,  boiling  in  lime  and  also  soap 
baths,  is  laid  on  the  grass  to  whiten.  This  bleaching 
takes  from  six  to  eight  weeks.  During  this  time  the 
linen  is  often  taken  up,  put  through  the  different 
processes  of  washing,  and  returned  to  the  grass.  The 
place  where  the  linen  is  bleached  must  be  away  from 
smoke  and  dust  and  near  good,  pure  water.  Much  of 
the  Irish  linen  is  grass  bleached,  especially  the  finest 
qualities.  The  linen  bleached  in  this  way  is  soft  and 
white  and  has  better  wearing  qualities.  (See  Figure 
II.) 


\ 


PROCESS  OF  MANUFACTURE 


103 


Chemical  Bleaching,  Most  of  the  linens  are  now 
bleached  by  chemicals,  because  of  the  resultant  saving 
in  time  and  labor,  although  the  chemicals  are  very  apt 
to  injure  the  fiber,  rendering  the  material  less  durable. 

Grades  of  Bleaching 

Four  grades  of  bleaching  are  found  in  the  stores: 

Full  bleach 
Three-quarter  bleach 
Half  or  silver  bleach 
Quarter  bleach 

Full  bleached  linen  is  not  so  strong  as  other  linen 
on  account  of  the  chemicals  used  in  the  process. 

Unbleached  linen  is  the  strongest  and  bleaches  in  the 
using. 

Beetling 

Beetling  is  a  process  which  gives  a  soft  finish  and 
luster  to  the  material.  The  dampened  cloth  is  passed 
slowly  through  a  machine  which  consists  of  a  pair  of 
wooden  rollers  to  which  are  fastened  heavy  wooden 
hammers.  These  beat  the  cloth  mechanically,  making 
it  soft  and  smooth,  adding  luster,  and  giving  to  the 
threads  a  uniform  thickness.  Beetling  is  sometimes 
done  by  hand. 

Calendering 
Calendering  is  a  process  which  gives  the  cloth  a 


I04 


m\ 


m\- 


Hi 


"^T* 


LINEN  DEPARTMENT 


smooth  surface  and  an  extra  glaze.  This  is  done  by 
passing  the  cloth  through  a  machine  with  heavy  iron 
rollers.  Any  amount  of  pressure  may  be  applied. 
Sometimes  these  iron  rollers  are  hollow  so  that  steam 
may  be  admitted  for  hot  calendering. 

The  cloth  is  then  folded,  given  a  heavy  pressure 
in  a  hydraulic  press,  marked,  and  packed  ready  for 
shipment. 


Chapter  XVI 

OTHER  VEGETABLE  FIBERS 

Varieties 

Some  of  the  cheaper  merchandise  of  the  cotton  and 
linen  departments  is  made  entirely  or  in  part  of  vege- 
table fibers  other  than  cotton  and  linen.  The  com- 
monest of  these  are : 

Ramie  and  China  grass 

Jute 

Hemp 

Ramie  and  China  Grass 

Ramie  and  China  grass  although  similar  in  kind  are 
really  two  distinct  fibers,  but  being  so  much  alike  they 
are  generally  considered  under  the  name  of  ramie. 

Ramie  or  ramie  linen  as  it  is  often  called,  has  very 
much  the  appearance  of  linen  but  with  a  higher  luster. 
It  may  be  used  for  the  same  purposes  as  linen,  such  as 
dress  goods,  underwear,  tablecloths,  toweling,  up- 
holstery, linings,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  hosiery 
and  knit  goods.  It  is  also  used  with  silk  in  the  manu- 
facture of  union  silk  goods.  It  is  exceptionally  white 
in  color  being  almost  as  white  as  bleached  cotton. 

105 


io6 


LINEN  DEPARTMENT 


OTHER  VEGETABLE  FIBERS 


107 


m\ 


I  ifi. 


The  fiber  is  grown  principally  in  China  and  India 
and  has  been  grown  in  America.  The  plant  from 
which  the  fiber  is  obtained  is  a  hardy  shrub  growing 
from  four  to  six  feet  in  height. 

Preparation  of  Ramie 

The  chief  diflSculty  in  its  use  is  the  difficulty  of 
separating  the  fiber  from  the  rest  of  the  plant.  In 
China  and  India  this  is  done  by  hand  and  the  fiber  is 
used  for  the  weaving  of  very  fine  and  beautiful  fabrics. 

The  ramie  fiber  cannot  be  removed  from  the  woody 
substance  by  simple  retting  as  in  flax  and  jute,  but  it 
must  undergo  severe  mechanical  treatment  to  remove 
the  outer  bark.  The  fiber  thus  obtained  is  held  to- 
gether by  a  large  quantity  of  gum  and  this  gum  must 
be  removed  by  a  chemical  agent  before  the  fibers  can 
be  combed  out. 

Ramie  is  good  for  some  purposes  but  it  is  not  so 
elastic  as  wool  or  silk  or  so  flexible  as  cotton.  Con- 
sequently, it  makes  a  harsher  fabric.  As  it  is  difficult 
to  spin  to  fine  counts,  the  materials  made  from  it  are 
usually  of  a  coarse  weave. 

Jute 

Jute  is  a  vegetable  fiber  growing  principally  in 
India.  Although  it  is  used  chiefly  for  making  coarse 
woven  fabrics  such  as  bagging  and  burlap,  in  the 
manufacture  of  twine  and  small  sizes  of  rope,  as  a 


binding  thread  in  the  weaving  of  carpets  and  rugs,  it 
is  also  used  with  wool  to  make  novelty  dress  goods. 

Like  flax  it  is  a  fiber  obtained  from  the  stalk  of  the 
plant  which  grows  to  a  height  of  from  ten  to  twelve 
feet.  The  fibrous  layer  is  very  thick,  so  that  the  yield 
is  from  two  to  five  times  as  much  as  flax. 

Preparation  of  Jute 

The  preparation  of  the  jute  fiber  is  a  more  simple 
operation  than  the  flax  although  something  like  it. 

The  leaves  and  seed  vessels  are  stripped  from  the 
stalks  which  are  then  retted  in  a  sluggish  stream  of 
water.  After  the  retting  or  rotting  the  stalks  are 
pressed  and  scutched;  that  is,  the  outer  substance  is 
broken  off  and  the  inner  jute  or  bast  fiber  set  free. 
This  fiber  then  has  very  little  of  the  woody  substance 
adhering  to  it. 

As  jute  is  more  sensitive  to  the  action  of  chemicals 
than  either  cotton  or  linen,  it  cannot  be  bleached  very 
successfully  for  the  action  of  the  bleaching  powder 
weakens  the  fiber. 

The  jute  fiber  is  weak  compared  with  other  fibers 
of  its  kind  but  the  fibers  are  fine  and  silk-like  and  lend 
themselves  readily  to  spinning.  Consequently  it  is 
used  a  great  deal  where  durability  is  not  required,  as 
in  the  cheap  pile  fabrics  used  in  upholstery. 

Jute  is  the  cheapest  of  all  the  fibers  used  in  textile 


^ 


io8 


LINEN  DEPARTMENT 


manufacturing  in  America,  and  it  is  used  in  great 
quantities,  although  it  lacks  durability  especially  when 
bleached. 

The  color  is  usually  pale  yellowish-brown  and  some 
of  the  best  qualities  are  yellowish-white  or  silver-gray. 

Hemp 

Hemp  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  homespuns  and 
linen  crash,  the  coarse  fibers  for  sailcloth  and  canvas, 
twine,  cordage,  ropes,  and  fishing  lines.  It  is  also 
used  for  the  warp  in  making  carpets  and  rugs. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  hemp,  but  the  so-called 
common  hemp  grows  as  a  shrub  from  six  to  fifteen 
feet  in  height,  and  is  found  in  many  countries. 
Several  varieties  are  grown  in  America ;  a  large  quan- 
tity is  grown  in  Russia  and  Poland ;  France  and  Italy 
produce  a  high  grade  hemp;  Japanese  hemp  is  also 
of  good  quality  and  seems  to  have  been  the  first 
textile  fiber  used  in  Japan. 

Preparation  of  Hemp 

The  hemp  fiber  is  obtained  from  the  plant  by  a 
process  of  retting  similar  to  flax.  Dew  retting  is  the 
method  used  chiefly,  the  stalks  being  spread  out  on  the 
grass  until  the  action  of  the  elements  causes  the  wood 
and  gum  to  decompose.  The  fiber  is  gray  and  some- 
what harsh.  It  is  a  very  strong  fiber  and  is  not  rotted 
by  water.     In  this  respect  it  differs  from  jute.     It  is 


OTHER  VEGETABLE  FIBERS 


109 


seldom  used  for  woven  textiles  as  it  is  harsh  and  stiff 
and  not  sufficiently  pliable  and  elastic.  It  also  pos- 
sesses a  rather  dark  brown  color  and  cannot  be  suc- 
cessfully bleached  without  serious  injury  to  the  quality 
of  the  fiber. 

Manila  hemp  is  a  variety  obtained  from  the  Philip- 
pine Islands.  It  is  a  strong  fiber,  the  coarser  ones  be- 
ing used  in  the  manufacture  of  cordage,  while  the  finer 
fibers  are  carefully  prepared  and  used  for  a  high-grade 
muslin. 


i|ii 


ADULTERATIONS  OF  LINEN 


III 


Chapter  XVII 

ADULTERATIONS  AND  TESTS  FOR  LINEN 
Adulterants 
The  adulterations  used  for  linen  are  of  two  kinds: 

1.  Cotton 

Plain 
Mercerized 

2.  Sizing^ 

Starch 

Glue 

Gum 

Adulteration  with  Cotton 

Cotton  is  the  cheapest  and  most  common  adultera- 
tion or  substitute  for  linen.  In  the  processes  of  weav- 
ing  and  finishing,  cotton  has  been  made  to  imitate  all 
of  the  other  fibers  and  especially  linen;  so  that  many 
unmformed  people  do  not  realize  that  in  buying  in- 
expensive table  linen  they  are  buying  cotton  finished 
to  look  like  linen. 

The  adulteration  with  cotton  is  often  done  so  skil- 

IIO 


fully  that  it  is  difficult  to  detect  until  the  material  has 
been  washed,  when  the  frizzy  ends  of  the  short  cotton 
fibers  will  show  on  the  surface  of  the  cloth. 

Large  quantities  of  cotton  are  imported  every  year 
into  Belfast,  the  great  linen  center,  where  it  is  worked 
in  with  the  more  expensive  flax  fiber. 

Difference  Between  Cotton  and  Linen 

Fabrics  made  from  cotton  and  linen  respectively 
have  their  own  characteristic  qualities  of  luster, 
beauty,  and  qualifications  for  wear. 

While  linen  is  a  more  beautiful  and  more  expensive 
material  than  cotton,  yet  cloth  woven  from  broken 
and  short  ends  of  poor  flax  will  not  be  so  good  or  so 
strong  as  a  good  cotton  material,  while  a  poor  cotton 
material  is  the  poorest  of  all. 

Adulterations  with  Sizings 

The  cheaper  grades  of  cotton  and  linen  are  adul- 
terated with  sizings  in  order  to  give  them  body  pr 
firmness  and  gloss  and  to  conceal  imperfections  in  the 
fiber  or  weave. 

The  question  is  often  asked:  "Why  do  people 
hold  cotton  or  linen  up  to  the  light,  and  look  through 
it?" 

If  poor  material  is  held  up  to  the  light  one  can 
easily  see  the  coarse  weave  and  thin  weak  threads 
and  the  sizing  or  starch  which  is  holding  the  threads 


••♦I 


112 


LINEN  DEPARTMENT 


If 


together,  while  good  material  will  look  firm  with  the 
threads  woven  closely  together. 

Simple  Tests 

Although  there  are  many  chemical  and  microscopic 
tests  which  will  show  accurately  the  composition  of 
materials,  these  can  only  be  made  in  the  laboratory, 
and  it  is  only  the  simple  tests  which  are  of  any  use 
at  present  to  either  the  buyer,  the  salesperson,  or  the 
consumer.  The  following  tests  are  not  so  accurate 
as  the  chemical  tests,  but  they  aid  one  in  judging  until 
one  soon  becomes  proficient  through  care  and  expe- 
rience. 

Burning, 

Cotton :     Bums  quickly  and  is  hard  to  blow  out. 
Linen:     Bums  more  slowly  and  smolders. 
Tearing. 
Cotton:    The   edges    curl   up.     Docs   not   tear 
quickly.     Sound   not   shrill.     Ends   even   and 
short,  tufted,  curly,  and  lusterless.     If  a  cotton 
thread  is  broken  quickly  the  end  curls  up. 
Linen:     Edge     straight     and     smooth.     Tears 
quickly  with  shrill  sound.     Ends  uneven,  long, 
pointed,  parallel,  and  glossy.     If  a  linen  thread 
is  broken  quickly  the  end  remains  straight. 
Feeling. 

Cotton:    Is  warm  and  holds  the  heat 


TESTS  FOR  LINEN  II3 

Linen :  Is  cool  and  leathery. 

Light  Test. 

Cotton:     Threads  are  even  and  uniform. 
Linen:    Threads  are  uneven  and  streaked. 

Oil  Test. 

Cotton :     Is  opaque. 

Linen:     Is  translucent. 

(Note:  The  dressing  must  be  removed  from 
both  materials  before  the  drop  of  oil  is  ap- 
plied.) 

Moisture. 

Cotton:     Does  not  absorb  moisture  readily. 
Linen:     Absorbs  moisture  quickly. 

Washing  or  Rubbing  Test 

A  mixture  of  cotton  or  linen  becomes  fuzzy  when 
the  dressmg  is  removed  because  the  cotton  fiber  is 
short  and  curled  at  the  end. 

Acid  Test 

Wash  samples  to  remove  dressing.  Immerse  in 
concentrated  sulphuric  acid  for  1%  or  2  minutes. 
Wash  and  dry  on  a  blotting  paper;  the  linen  fibers 
remain,  the  cotton  fibers  have  been  dissolved. 

Microscope  Test 

Under  the  microscope  the  cotton  fiber  is  flat,  short, 


114 


i 


LINEN  DEPARTMENT 


twisted,  and  has  no  luster  excepting  mercerized  cot- 
ton, which  is  very  kistrous,  has  no  twist  and  appears 
cyhndrical  in  form. 

The  linen  fiber  is  long,  straight,  and  lustrous,  and 
the  end  tapers  to  a  sharp  point.  It  has  cross  lines  at 
mtervals  resembling  bamboo.  Sometimes  swellings 
appear  at  these  cross  sections.  ( See  Figure  8  on  pa^e 
43)  ^  ^ 


Chapter  XVIII 

LINEN  YARD  GOODS 

Art  Linen 

Art  linen  is  a  soft-finished,  plain  woven  linen,  made 
with  round  hard-twisted  yamsw  It  is  usually  full 
bleached  or  dyed.  Its  width  is  from  24  to  36  inches. 
It  is  used  for  embroidery,  in  making  pillow  covers, 
doilies,  etc.  It  is  often  called  round  thread  linen.  It 
is  especially  useful  when  it  is  necessary  to  pull  threads 
for  hemstitching  as  the  round  threads  are  stronger 
and  do  not  break  so  easily  as  the  fiat  threads  ordinarily 
used. 

Bird's-Eye  Linen 

This  is  a  linen  fabric  in  which  the  pattern  is  made 
up  of  small  figures  resembling  birds'  eyes,  these  figures 
being  repeated  over  and  over  until  they  cover  the  entire 
surface  of  the  fabric. 

Butcher's  Linen 

This  is  a  stiff,  heavy,  coarse-weave  linen.  It  is  used 
for  butchers'  aprons,  hence  its  name;  and  also  for 
dress  materials. 

"5 


ii6 


LINEN  DEPARTMENT 


Cambric 

Cambric  was  named  from  town  of  Cambrai,  France, 
where  it  was  first  made  in  1520.  It  is  a  fine,  sheer! 
plain  woven  linen.  The  name  French  cambric  is  given 
to  the  finest  and  thinnest  variety.  It  is  used  for  dress 
goods,  lingerie,  handkerchiefs,  etc. 

Crash 

This  is  a  coarse  linen  toweling,  either  twill  or  plain- 
weave,  bleached  or  unbleached. 

Russia  crash  is  a  very  narrow  material  of  coarse 
thread  and  coarse  weave.  It  may  be  used  for  towel- 
ing, also  for  table  runners  and  art  needlework. 

Crash  suiting  is  a  heavy,  plain,  rather  coarse-weave 
linen  material  used  for  suits  for  both  men  and  women. 

Damask 

The  name  comes  from  Damascus,  where  the  cloth 
was  first  made.  It  is  a  beautiful  linen  with  a  figured 
weave  made  on  a  Jacquard  loom.  These  figures  are 
made  with  a  satin  weave  of  the  warp  threads,  and  the 
ground  with  a  satin  weave  of  the  weft  or  filling 
threads.  The  linen  warp  for  table  damask  is  dressed 
before  beaming.  This  dressing  not  only  enables  it  to 
stand  the  friction  of  weaving,  but  gives  the  cloth  a 
beautiful  satin  finish.  Double  damask  is  made  with  a 
double  thread  in  the  filling  and  is  woven  of  well- 


LINEN  YARD  GOODS 


117 


twisted  fiber.  In  double  damask  the  pattern  shows 
more  distinctly  than  in  single  damask.  That  which 
is  hand-woven  and  grass  bleached  wears  best.  For 
medium  quality  damask  there  are  180  thread  warps 
per  inch;  for  fine  damask,  220  threads.  The  filling  of 
double  damask  has  280  threads  per  inch;  of  single 
damask,  180  threads  per  inch. 

Diaper  Linen 

This  is  a  strong,  soft-finished  linen  cloth  made  with 
a  damask  weave  in  a  small  set  pattern.  It  is  used  for 
towels. 

Linen  Duck 

The  name  is  derived  from  the  Dutch  "  dock,"  mean- 
ing a  linen  cloth.  It  is  a  strong  material  originally 
made  of  linen,  now  made  in  both  linen  and  cotton, 
but  chiefly  cotton.     (See  "  Cotton  Duck,"  page  65.) 

Glass  Toweling 

This  is  a  linen  material  of  plain  weave  characterized 
by  plain  colored  threads  of  red  or  blue,  woven  into  the 
cloth  in  the  form  of  checks.  It  is  of  narrow  width 
and  light  weight.  It  is  used  principally  for  kitchen 
towels ;  the  better  qualities  occasionally  being  used  for 
embroidery  as  for  sofa  cushions. 

Handkerchief  Linen 

This  is  a  fine,  plain  linen  used  chiefly  for  making 
handkerchiefs,  also  for  dresses  and  waists. 


in 


ii8 


LINEN  DEPARTMENT 


Holland  Linen 

This  is  a  plain  woven  linen  finished  by  a  sizing  of 
oil  and  starch  which  renders  it  opaque  and  impervious 
to  the  sun's  rays.  It  is  used  for  window  shades. 
Originally  material  of  this  name  was  used  for  dress 
material  and  was  neither  calendered  nor  starched. 

Huckaback 

The  word  comes  from  huckster  and  back.  The 
huckster  in  England  is  a  man  who  carries  his  wares 
on  his  back.  It  is  a  linen  toweling  of  various  qualities 
and  prices,  characterized  by  the  long  threads  brought 
to  the  surface  at  regular  intervals,  giving  somewhat 
the  appearance  of  small  dots.  The  better  qualities 
often  have  a  damask  figure  woven  in.  The  width 
varies  from  i6  to  24  inches  when  sold  by  the  yard. 
Huckaback  comes  as  separate  towels  in  regulation  sizes 
and  also  in  small  sizes  for  guest  towels.  It  is  also 
used  for  embroidering. 

Linen  Lawn 

This  is  a  fine,  sheer  linen,  much  like  handkerchief 
linen.  It  is  used  for  dresses,  waists,  lingerie,  and 
handkerchiefs. 

Pillow-Case  Linen 

This  is  a  bleached  linen  material  which  is  used  espe- 
cially for  pillow-cases. 


LINEN  YARD  GOODS 


119 


Sheeting 

This  is  a  wide,  heavy  linen  material  which  is  used 
especially  for  sheets.  Sometimes,  however,  on  ac- 
count of  its  width  and  quality  it  is  bought  for  dress 
and  suit  material  for  the  reason  that,  being  wide,  it 
cuts  to  advantage. 

Toweling 

This  is  a  general  term  for  materials  suitable  for 
towels  and  it  is  sold  by  the  yard  from  the  piece.  The 
width  ranges  from  12  to  24  inches.  The  materials 
are  crash,  damask,  huckaback,  terry  cloth,  glass  cloth, 
honeycomb,  diaper,  and  momie. 


TOILET  LINEN 


121 


I 
I 


J« 


Chapter  XIX 

TOILET  LINEN 

Classification 

Toilet  linen,  both  linen  and  cotton,  consists  of 
towels  of  various  kinds  and  sizes,  wash  cloths,  and 
bath  mats.  These  may  be  divided  into  the  following 
groups : 

Finished  Towels 

Huckaback  (Hemmed,  Hemstitched,  or  Scal- 
loped) 

Damask  (Hemmed,  Hemstitched,  or  Scal- 
loped) 

Fancy  Weaves  (Hemmed,  Hemstitched,  or 
Scalloped) 

Turkish  Towels 

Turkish  Bath  Sheets 

Crash  Towels  (Kitchen) 

Glass  Towels 

Toweling  by  the  Yard 

Damask 

Huckaback 

lao 


Crash 

Unbleached  Linen 
Half -Bleached  Linen 
Old  Bleach  Linen 
Glass  Toweling 
Cotton  Toweling 
Union  Groods 
Turkish  Toweling 
Terry  Cloth 

Wash  Cloths 
Woven 
Knitted 

Bath  Mats 
Rubber  Sheeting 

Towels 

The  name  is  derived  from  the  Spanish  toalla. 
A  towel  is  a  moisture-absorbing  cloth  used  to  wipe 
anything  dry. 

The  absorbent  property  of  linen  makes  it  the  best 
material  for  towels  but  recent  treatments  of  cotton 
with  certain  chemicals  make  it  answer  nearly  as  well. 
The  rough  and  fancy  weaves  are  the  best  for  this 
purpose:  huckaback,  terry  cloth,  crash,  and  softer 
materials  such  as  honeycomb,  momie,  and  oatmeal. 
Damask  is  also  used,  but  it  is  less  effective  than  the 
rougher  weaves  because  of  its  smooth  surface. 


I 

I 


1^- 


122 


LINEN  DEPARTMENT 


The  finer  qualities  of  linen  towels  are  made  in 
Ireland,  Scotland,  and  Germany.  Coarse  linen  towels 
and  cotton  towels  are  made  in  the  United  States. 
Flax  grown  in  this  country  for  flax  seed  produces  a 
coarser  fiber  because  the  plants  are  allowed  to  mature, 
which  makes  the  fiber  tougher.  Toweling,  both  im- 
ported and  domestic,  is  made  from  union  goods,  a 
mixture  of  cotton  and  linen. 

Turkish  Towels 

The  name  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the  fact  that 
large  quantities  are  shipped  to  Turkey,  where  they  are 
much  appreciated. 

A  Turkish  towel  is  a  coarse,  rough  cotton  tow-el 
with  a  looped  pile  surface.  ( See  "  Terry  Cloth,'* 
page  74.)  These  towels  are  made  in  various  sizes 
some  of  them  being  especially  large. 

Although  the  machinery  for  making  them  is  of 
modem  invention,  the  making  of  this  material  is  of 
ancient  origin.  The  machinery  was  invented  by 
Samuel  Holt  in  1848.  In  1855  he  was  awarded  a 
medal  by  Queen  Victoria,  because  she  was  so  pleased 
with  the  towel  which  he  presented  to  her,  and  this 
immediately  established  its  popularity. 

Wash  Cloths 

A  wash  cloth  should  have  a  rough  surface,  but 
should  not  be  harsh  or  stiff.     The  loose,  open  mesh 


TOILET  LINEN 


123 


of  the  knitted  or  crocheted  wash  cloth  is  preferred  by 
many  people  because  of  its  softness,  and  for  this  rea- 
son terry  cloth  is  the  most  common  weave.  Wash 
cloths  are  usually  made  of  cotton. 

Children's  wash  cloths  are  sometimes  made  of  silk 
and  linen  as  silk  is  softer  for  a  tender  skin. 

Cloths  for  washing  dishes  are  made  of  loosely 
knitted  imbleached  cotton. 

Damask  Towel  Design 

Designs  for  finished  damask  towels  are  adapted 
from  table  linen  designs  (Chapter  XXI)  and  are 
less  elaborate.  The  two  ends  of  the  towel  are  the 
field  for  the  most  important  part  of  the  design,  which 
may  run  across  the  width  of  the  material  like  a  border 
pattern,  or  be  a  "  turnover,"  with  the  two  sides  bal- 
anced and  opposite.  The  pattern  sometimes  con- 
tinues in  a  narrower  border  on  the  sides  of  the  towel. 
Sometimes  these  designs  are  finished  only  with  a  line 
or  the  selvage. 

The  body  of  the  towel  may  be  plain  but  in  damask 
it  usually  has  a  diaper  or  filling  pattern  of  dots  or 
small  figures. 

Coarse  Towel  Design 

The  weave  of  huckaback,  momie,  oatmeal,  etc.,  is 
a  design  in  itself  and  these  towels  usually  have  a  plain 
woven  space  at  each  end  on  which  a  damask  design  is 


124 


M 


LINEN  DEPARTMENT 


woven.     The  finer  materials  in  these  fancy  weaves 
may  have  damask  patterns  on  the  body  of  the  towel. 

An  excellent  grade  of  toweling  in  these  weaves  has 
no  decoration  save  the  hemstitching  at  the  end.  They 
may  be  embroidered  with  handsome  initials  in  white 
or  color. 

Design  of  Fine  Grades 

The  finest  grades  of  towels  are  almost  always  pure 
white.  Less  expensive  ones  usually  have  colored 
borders,  geometrical  patterns  being  common.  Fancy 
towels  are  sometimes  elaborately  embroidered  either 
at  one  or  both  ends. 

Guest  towels,  which  are  meant  to  be  used  only  once, 
are  small  and  dainty,  and  are  made  of  the  same  ma- 
terial as  the  larger  towels.  If  they  are  to  be  em- 
broidered plain  material  is  the  best  foundation. 

Designs  for  Turkish  Towels,  Bath  Mats,  and  Wash 
Cloths 

Turkish  towels  have  either  white  or  colored  end 
borders  in  lines  or  geometrical  patterns. 

Bath  mats  have  borders  or  all-over  patterns  in  plain 
weave  to  distinguish  them  from  terry  cloth. 

Wash  cloths  have  border  designs  or  are  ornamented 
with  crochet  edges.  Those  in  terry  cloth  may  have 
all-over  designs,  but  are  usually  plain. 


TOILET  LINEN 


125 


Plain  Towel  Design 

Toweling  by  the  yard  is  plain,  or  it  has  a  diaper 
pattern  in  small  figures  for  the  face  towels  and  colored 
cross  bars  for  glass  toweling. 


¥ 


li 


Chapter  XX 

BED  UNEN 
Definitions 

Bed  linen  is  a  name  which  was  used  when  all  the 
sheets,  pillow-cases,  shams,  etc.,  were  made  of  linen. 
The  term  ,s  still  used  although  now  these  various  ar- 
ticles are  usually  made  of  cotton. 

Bedding  is  a  term  used  for  any  and  all  of  the  ma- 
terials and  articles  used  in  furnishing  a  bed,  as  sheets, 
pillow-cases,  blankets,  quilts,  comfortables,  counter- 
panes, as  well  as  mattresses  and  pillows. 

Sheets 

An  extensive  business  is  now  done  in  made  and 
finished  sheets.  These  come  in  sizes  to  correspond 
with  the  sizes  of  beds  and  are  finished  either  with 
plain  hemming  or  hemstitching.  Sometimes  they  are 
embroidered.  They  come  from  the  manufacturer 
tolded  m  a  convenient  way  for  handling  and  showing 

Three  yards,  or  io8  inches,  is  considered  the  best 
length  for  sheets. 

The  width  of  sheets  is  given  in  « quarters,"  that 

ia6 


BED  LINEN 


127 


is,  quarters  of  a  yard,  6  "  quarters  "  being  54  inches 
wide,  and  10  "  quarters  "  90  inches.  Single  beds  are 
in  such  general  use  now  that  larger  quantities  of  single 
sheets  are  sold.  The  usual  width  for  single  beds  is 
7  quarters,  63  inches,  to  tuck  in,  or  8  quarters,  ^2 
inches,  to  hang  down. 

Hemstitched  and  embroidered  sheets  are  often  sold 
simply  to  be  used  as  top  sheets. 

Sheeting 

The  term  sheeting  may  be  applied  to  any  cotton 
or  linen  cloth  which  has  a  plain  weave,  soft  finish,  and 
suitable  weight  for  bed  sheets,  but  it  usually  refers 
to  cloth  of  extra  width  ranging  from  45  to  108  inches. 

Rubber  sheeting  is  a  cotton  cloth  coated  with  rubber 
to  make  it  water-proof.  It  is  from  2y  to  54  inches 
wide  and  comes  in  white  or  gray.  It  is  used  for  many 
purposes  where  a  soft,  water-proof  material  is  re- 
quired. (See  manual  for  "  The  Notion  Department," 
for  a  description  of  the  preparation  of  water-proof 
cloth. ) 

Mattress  Pads 

A  mattress  pad  is  a  covering  used  between  the  sheet 
and  mattress  to  protect  the  mattress.  It  is  made  of 
cotton  wadding  covered  with  heavy  cotton  cloth,  the 
whole  being  quilted  together  and  bound  on  all  four 
sides. 


I 


128 


LINEN  DEPARTMENT 


Pillow-Cases 

A  pillow-case  is  the  outside  covering  for  a  pillow. 
The  regular  size  is  22  x  34  inches. 

Pillow-casing  is  a  plain-weave  material  which  comes 
from  42  to  50  inches  wide. 

Pillow-tubing  or  tubular  pillow-casing  is  a  material 
woven  in  the  form  of  a  tube  so  that  no  scam  is  re- 
quired in  making.  In  circumference  it  is  from  42  to 
54  inches. 

Made  and  finished  pillow-cases  are  in  greater  de- 
mand than  the  cloth  in  either  form.  Pillow-cases  are 
finished  with  wide  plain  hems  or  hemstitching  to 
match  the  sheets. 

Bolster  cases  for  the  long  pillow  or  "bolster" 
which  was  formerly  laid  across  double  beds  under- 
neath the  pillows  are  sometimes  called  for,  though 
now  there  is  comparatively  little  use  for  them. 

Small  cases  for  pillows  placed  in  front  of  larger 
ones  or  on  couches  are  usually  hemstitched  and  often 
embroidered.  They  may  be  sold  in  the  infants'  de- 
partment or  among  the  fancy  linens. 

Blankets 

Blankets  are  made  of  a  loosely  woven  woolen  or 
cotton  fabric  with  a  long  nap.  Originally  blankets 
were  made  entirely  of  wool,  but  these  have  been  re- 
placed in  the  less  expensive  grades  by  union  blankets 


BED  LINEN 


129 


which  are  made  with  a  cotton  warp  and  a  wool  weft 
or  filling.  Blankets  are  also  made  entirely  of  thick 
cotton  yarns,  the  nap  being  raised  by  machinery.  In 
a  union  blanket  the  cotton  warp  may  be  seen  at  the 
edge,  or  when  a  fold  is  doubled  over  the  straight  lines 
of  the  cotton  can  be  detected. 

Summer  blankets  of  wool  are  woven  like  flannels. 
They  are  made  in  six  sizes  besides  the  crib  size  for 
infants. 

Quilts 

A  quilt  is  a  bed  covering  consisting  of  a  soft  layer 
of  cotton  or  wool  wadding  covered  with  cloth  on  both 
sides,  quilted  or  tacked  together  at  regular  intervals, 
and  bound. 

The  old-fashioned  "  patchwork  quilt "  was  made  of 
small  pieces  of  cotton  or  woolen  cloth,  made  into 
"blocks"  of  fanciful  design.  When  the  blocks  were 
finished  and  sewed  together,  a  piece  of  plain  cloth  was 
stretched  on  a  wooden  frame,  sheets  of  wadding  were 
placed  on  this  cloth,  and  the  patchwork  piece  laid  on 
top.  Then  the  three  layers  were  tacked  together  for 
quilting.  The  frame  consisted  of  wooden  bars  on 
four  sides.  The  quilt  was  wound  upon  the  two  side 
bars,  as  the  "  quilters  "  who  sat  in  two  rows  at  the 
sides  of  the  frame  stitched  it  together  by  hand. 

Modem  quilts  are  usually  covered  with  light  cotton 
materials. 


130  LINEN  DEPARTMENT 

Comfortables 

These  are  bed  coverings  similar  to  quilts,  but  with 
a  thicker  layer  of  wadding  in  them.  Sometimes  the 
words  are  used  interchangeably.  The  coverings  for 
comfortables  may  be  of  : 

Cheese-cloth  Silkoline 

Chalhs  Sateen 

Chintz  sjii^ 
Batiste 

The  wadding  for  the  better  grades  may  be  of  cotton 
battmg  or  carded  wool.  Low-priced  comfortables 
may  be  filled  with  coarse  shoddy  or  flocks,  short  refuse 
wool.  Down  comfortables  or  puffs  are  filled  with  fine 
down  feathers.  These  comfortables  are  exception- 
ally  light  and  warm. 

Comfortables  have  been  factory-made  since  1875. 
Previous  to  that  time  they  were  always  made  at  home. 
Now  factory-made  ones  are  so  inexpensive  that  it  is 
scarcely  worth  while  to  make  them  by  hand. 

They  come  in  but  one  size,  72  x  78  inches,  except 
the  down  puffs,  which  are  made  in  several  sizes. 

Counterpanes 

The  name  comes  from  the  French  counterpoint, 
which  means  point  against  point,  suggestive  of  the 
"panes"  or  small  squares  of  the  old-fashioned  bed 
quilt. 


BED  LINEN 


131 


A  counterpane  is  the  outside  cover  of  the  bed.  It 
is  made  of  cotton  and  woven  with  a  raised  pattern, 
and  may  be  either  crochet  or  marseilles.  The  crochet 
counterpane  is  made  of  coarse,  bleached  cotton,  woven 
in  conventional  patterns  by  means  of  a  Jacquard  at- 
tachment to  the  loom.  The  term  crochet  is  used 
because  of  its  resemblance  to  the  old-fashioned 
"  crochet  *'  spreads  made  by  hand.  The  marseilles 
counterpane,  so  called  because  first  made  in  Marseilles, 
has  a  compound  weave  but  the  embossed  pattern, 
usually  a  large  design,  appears  on  one  side  only.  The 
yam  for  the  face  is  much  finer  than  that  used  for  the 
back  and  has  twice  the  number  of  threads. 

Both  of  these  are  woven  in  continuous  strips  into 
from  five  hundred  to  one  thousand  counterpanes  in  a 
piece. 

After  leaving  the  loom  the  counterpanes  are  in- 
spected. Knots  and  ends  are  removed  and  then  they 
are  passed  over  rollers  into  the  bleaching  vat,  where 
they  remain  for  about  two  hours  in  a  solution  of 
chlorine.  After  being  rinsed,  boiled,  and  blued  the 
long  strip  is  dried  over  smooth,  heated  rollers.  The 
counterpanes  are  then  cut  apart  with  sharp  knives, 
hemmed,  folded,  ticketed,  and  shipped. 

Bed  Spreads 

Counterpanes  are  often  called  bed  spreads,  though 


^^1 
1,01 


1 1 


II 


132 


LINEN  DEPARTMENT 


the  latter  are  usually  of  lighter  weight,  being  made  of 
dimity,  cretonne,  or  of  corded  material  with  or  with- 
out  fringe.     They  may  be  stamped  in  colors. 

Children's  Spreads 

Dainty  covers  for  children's  cribs  and  carriages 
made  of  fine  marseilles,  dimity,  or  embroidered  mus- 
lin, and  edged  with  lace  or  embroidery,  as  well  as 
embroidered  baby  pillows  and  cushions,  add  much  to 
the  attractive  display  in  this  department. 

Sizes  of  Bed  Linen 
These  sizes  are  the  same  for  cotton  and  linen. 


Sheets 
54X  96 
63X  96 

72X    96 

72x108 
81  X  96 
81x108 
90X  96 
90x108 

Pillow-Slips 

22MiX    36 

(regulation 
25  X   36 
27X   36 


Bedspreads 
72  x   90  (single  bed) 
72  X  100  (single  bed) 
80  X  100  (3  quarter  bed,  or 
double,  not  hanging  down) 
90  X  100  (double  brass  bed) 
97x116  (extra  size) 

Blankets 
60X   80  (single  bed) 
60  X   90  (single  bed) 
72  X   82  (3  quarter) 
72  X   90  (3  quarter) 
76  X   84  (double) 
80X  90  (double) 

Comfortables 


size) 


72x78  (one  size) 


Chapter  XXI 

TABLE  LINEN 

Classification 
Table  linen  consists  of : 

Table  Cloths 
Napkins 
Tea  Qoths 
Tray  Cloths 
Doilies 
Silence  Cloths 

Table  Cloths 

Linen  table  cloths  have  long  been  used  to  cover  the 
table  on  which  a  meal  is  to  be  served.  Because  of 
the  high  price  of  linen,  many  cloths  are  now  made  of 
union  goods  or  cotton.  The  finer  cloths  are  white 
with  a  damask  weave,  but  some  linens  and  many 
cheap  cotton  cloths  are  made  in  colors. 

Table  cloths  may  come  in  more  than  thirty  sizes. 
A  table  set  consists  of  one  table  cloth  and  twelve 
napkins  which  match  in  design,  quality,  and  color. 

133 


134 


LINEN  DEPARTMENT 


I 


Napkins 

A  napkin  is  a  square  piece  of  cloth  used  at  the 
table  to  wipe  the  hands  and  mouth  and  also  to  protect 
the  clothes. 

The  name  was  originally  used  to  mean  a  handker- 
chief  and  some  of  the  Scotch  people,  still  call  handker- 
chiefs  pocket  napkins. 

Until  recently,  napkins  were  made  of  linen  and 
woven  with  a  damask  pattern.  Cotton  napkins  are 
now  used  to  some  extent  and  especially  since  through 
^e  process  of  mercerizing  a  good  imitation  Hnen  can 
be  obtained.  These  mercerized  cotton  napkins  make 
a  good  ordinary  napkin,  but  should  never  be  sold  as 
linen  Still  cheaper  cotton  napkins  are  made  with  a 
calendered  finish,  a  gloss  resembling  the  luster  of 
mercerized  cotton  or  linen,  but  which  will  wash  out 
leaving  a  cheap  plain  cotton  material. 

Napkins,  woven  in  long  strips,  are  attached  to  each 
other  end  to  end.  The  strip  is  usually  the  width  of 
the  napkin  with  a  selvage  on  each  side.  Napkins  are 
sold  at  the  counters  in  packages  of  a  dozen  or  a  half 
dozen  and  must  be  cut  apart  and  hemmed  on  the  ends 
by  the  purchaser.  Cheap  napkins  are  sometimes 
woven  several  napkins  in  width  as  well  as  in  length, 
m  which  case  they  must  be  cut  apart  and  hemmed  all 
around.  Cheap  napkins  may  also  be  bought  singly 
already  hemmed  by  machine. . 


TABLE  LINEN 


135 


The  sizes  of  napkins  range  from  16  inches  to  32 
inches  square,  and  are  known  as  breakfast  napkins, 
dinner  napkins,  and  tea  napkins. 

Tea  Cloths 

A  tea  cloth  is  a  small  cloth  of  plain,  bleached  linen 
or  damask  having  either  a  hemstitched  or  scalloped 
edge  and  sometimes  finished  with  drawn-work  or  em- 
broidery.    It  is  used  as  a  cover  for  a  table  or  a  tray. 

Tray  Cloths 

A  tray  cloth  is  an  oblong  piece  of  cloth,  made  of 
different  materials,  such  as  plain,  bleached  linen, 
damask,  etc.,  and  finished  with  hemstitched  edge, 
fringe,  or  scallops.  It  is  used  to  cover  a  tray  on  which 
food  is  carried,  also  on  the  table  to  protect  the  table 
cover. 

Doilies 

Doilies  are  small  mats  or  centerpieces,  made  of  em- 
broidered linen,  cotton,  or  lace.  Originally  they  were 
small  fringed  napkins  woven  in  colors.  They  are 
named  for  Sir  John  D'Oyley,  an  English  merchant, 
who  first  made  them. 

Doilies  come  in  sets  and  are  used  to  decorate  dining- 
room  tables,  sideboards,  dressers,  etc.  A  limcheon 
or  tea  table  is  often  set  with  doilies  of  different  sizes 
for  the  plates,  glasses,  and  often  the  dishes,  in  which 
case  a  table  cloth  is  dispensed  with.     Doilies  used  in 


r, 


I 


136 


LINEN  DEPARTMENT 


this  way  are  suitable  for  less  formal  occasions.     They 
are  also  placed  on  plates  under  finger  bowls,  ramekins, 
or  glass  dishes  for  fruit,  etc.     Glass  is  more  effective 
when  placed  on  linen  than  on  china. 
Silence  Cloths 

Silence  cloth  is  the  name  given  to  any  heavy  cloth 
which  is  laid  under  the  table  cloth  to  deaden  the  sound 
of  the  dishes  and  also  to  protect  the  table  varnish 
from  heat.  It  is  usually  made  of  cream  colored  or 
white  woolen  felt  or  a  double-faced  cotton  flannel, 
and  ranges  in  width  from  54  to  64  inches. 
Asbestos  Pads 

Asbestos  table  pads  made  of  sheets  of  asbestos 
board  covered  with  cotton  flannel  are  taking  the  place 
of  silence  cloths,  as  asbestos  is  a  poor  conductor  of 
heat,  and  therefore  a  better  protection  for  the  table. 

Any  soft  cloth  laid  under  the  table  cloth  adds  to 
its  apparent  weight  and  richness. 

Where  doilies  are  used  on  an  uncovered  table,  small 
asbestos  mats  are  placed  under  the  doilies  upon  which 
hot  plates  are  to  be  set.     These  mats  come  in  a  num- 
ber of  different  sizes,  both  round,  and  oblong. 
Sizes  of  Table  Linen 

The  standard  sizes  for  table  cloths,  both  hemmed 
and  unhemmed,  napkins,  and  doilies  are  given  in  the 
following  table: 


TABLE  LINEN 

137 

Unhemmed  Tablecloths 

Hemmed  or  Scalloped 

I             yd. 

square 

Tablecloths 

iV* 

(( 

36  X  36  in. 

(tea  cloth) 

1% 

« 

54  X  54  " 

1% 

n 

72x72  " 

2 

t€ 

80x80  " 

(rise  by  %  yd.) 

2     X2%    " 

90x90  " 

it          a       n       n 

2      X3         " 

Add  a  leaf  by  adding  ^  yd. 

2      X3%    " 

2     X4        " 

Unhemmed  Napkins 

2y4X2y4     " 
2y4X2%     " 

Tea: 

16  in. 

17  " 

18  " 

2y4  X  3         " 

2y4X3%     " 

2y4  X  4    " 

Breakfast : 

19  in. 

2%X2%    " 

20   " 

2%X3         " 

21    " 

2%X3%     " 

22    " 

2%X4        " 

Dinner: 

24  in. 

2%X4^    " 

25   " 

2%  X  5         " 

26   " 

2%X5^    « 

27   " 

2%X6         " 

28   " 

2^X7        " 

29  " 

30  " 

2%X8        " 

3    x3      " 

31    " 

3    X4      " 

32   " 

3    X5      " 

3    x6      " 

Doilies 

3^x3^   « 

12  in. 

3^x4%  " 

14   " 

3^x5%  " 

16   " 

3%x6%   " 

18   " 

4  yd.  sq. )  for  cutting 

20   " 

5  "  "    ) 

round. 

24   " 

t, 


it 


! 


V. 


r 


f ' 


I' 


138 


LINEN  DEPARTMENT 


Table  cloths  and  napkins  are  folded,  irrespective  of 
s.ze  mto  7-anch  folds.  The  finer  qualities  are  wrapped 
smgly  m  either  blue  or  gray  paper.  On  this  paper 
and  also  on  a  paper  pasted  on  the  cloth  are  written 
the  registered  number,  size,  and  name  of  design. 

Classification  of  Designs  in  Table  Linen 

wit?,'  ^.f'^'u^  *'  '^'''^''  ''  *°  «"  ^  ^'^rtain  space 
snaces  P""'™, ^'T?  '^'  P^^per  balance  of  lines  and 
spaces.  Textile  design  makes  certain  demands  and 
has  Its  special  limitations,  and  table  linen  must  be  con- 

aS  r.  "^T^-  ^''"^  ^""^  ^^^"  '^'  ''^'^'  designer. 
At  fir  t  thought  ,t  seems  as  if  the  problem  were  e^r 

JS^in  .f  "  """"  *^"  ^^'  '°  ^''P  hi«  pattern 

The  standard  designs  for  table  linen  are: 

Shamrock  p^pp^ 

Snowdrop  pjeur  de  lis 

Maidenhair  fern  Checks 

^^^^  Stripes 

l^''^^^  Polka  dots 

"^'^"^  Scroll  patterns 

Difficulties  of  Designing 

The  uninitiated  may  wonder  why  there  are  so  few 
patterns  mstead  of  the  almost  endless  number  shown 


TABLE  LINEN 


139 


in  carpets,  wall  paper,  or  yard  goods.  The  reasons 
may  be  found  in  the  lack  of  color  of  the  weave,  and 
the  necessity  for  making  the  design  in  different  pro- 
portions for  different  lengths  of  cloths. 

First,  the  pattern  is  usually  without  color  which 
makes  it  depend  for  its  beauty  entirely  upon  the  re- 
flection of  light  by  the  "  floats,"  or  threads  which  lie 
on  the  surface  of  the  cloth.  Table  linen  is  always 
woven  with  a  damask  weave  in  order  that  the  pattern 
may  be  thrown  out  by  the  alternate  reflection  of  light 
on  the  masses  of  warp  and  weft  threads. 

The  pattern  must  also  be  simple  and  flat.  Shading 
is  not  apt  to  be  successful  because  it  blurs  the  effect 
and  patterns  with  a  great  many  lines  break  up  the 
shining  satiny  surface.  Very  delicate  patterns  should 
be  made  only  in  finely  woven  linen,  as  coarse  threads 
make  a  ragged  outline  for  a  dainty  design.  The 
flower  patterns  which  come  in  the  finest  linens  have 
certain  characteristic  lines  which  have  been  found  to 
be  most  successful. 

The  necessity  for  making  a  pattern  which  can  be 
lengthened  out  for  tables  of  different  lengths  limits 
the  designer  more  than  anything  else. 

Method  of  Designing 

If  the  maker  of  table  linen  could  plan  just  for  a 
square  or  oblong  design  his  work  would  be  easy.  He 
would  first  design  a  square  or  oblong  with  all  its 


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140 


LINEN  DEPARTMENT 


corners  alike  and  then  fill  in  the  center  with  a  radiat- 
ing, circular,  or  repeating  pattern.  He  could  carry 
the  central  design  into  the  border  or  bring  the  border 
into  the  central  field. 

He  cannot  make  so  simple  a  plan,  however,  because 
his  design  must  be  suitable  for  spaces  beginning  with 
a  square  and  ending  with  an  oblong  whose  length  is 
two  or  three  times  its  width.  He  must  be  able  there- 
fore to  draw  out  his  pattern  and  insert  sections  in 
it  just  as  the  leaves  are  inserted  in  an  extension  tabic. 

Sometimes  the  lengthening  is  so  cleverly  done  that 
it  is  impossible  to  discover  the  lengthening  pieces,  the 
pattern  being  perfect  in  each  size.  A  small  conven- 
tional design  is  easy  to  extend  but  one  with  branching 
scrolls  or  natural  growth  must  be  treated  very  skil- 
fully or  it  will  fail  to  connect  properly. 

Such  patterns  are  usually  divided  in  the  center  and 
the  extra  pieces  are  inserted  there.  If  the  central 
pattern  has  been  circular,  it  becomes  oblong,  or  the 
figures  are  turned  around  so  as  to  make  two  circles. 
The  border  pattern  must  be  so  designed  that  addi- 
tional branches  will  seem  to  come  in  naturally. 

Sometimes  the  lengthening  pieces  are  not  added  in 
the  middle  but  half  way  between  the  middle  and  the 
ends.  This  leaves  the  central  pattern  undisturbed  but 
requires  careful  adjustment  in  the  border.  If  a  flow- 
ing pattern  is  used  the  figures  must  be  just  the  size 


Courtesy  of  James   McCutcheon  and   Company 
Acorn  and  Oak  Leaf   (upper)  Thistle   (lower) 

Figure  12.    Designs  in  Table  Cloths 


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» 


r 


TABLE  LINEN 


141 


of  the  lengthening  piece,  either  9  or  18  inches,  so  as 
to  be  used  as  a  repeat,  or  else  sprays,  twigs,  or  other 
small  figures  must  be  brought  in  "  naturally,"  that  is 
without  the  break  being  noticeable.  This  requires 
considerable  skill. 

In  Figure  12  the  acorn  and  oak  leaf  pattern  can  be 
lengthened  by  lengthening  the  longer  festoon  or  in- 
serting another  small  festoon,  as  the  figures  cross  on 
one  side  only.  The  thistle  pattern  can  be  lengthened 
by  the  addition  of  sprays  or  small  figures. 

Designs  of  Borders 

Borders  may  be  designed  in  three  ways: 

The  pattern  may  run  around  the  cloth  in  a  con- 
tinuous line. 

It  may  begin  at  the  comers  and  meet  in  the 
middle  of  each  side. 

It  may  begin  at  the  middle  of  the  sides  and  meet 
at  the  corners. 

The  last  two  will  make  a  well-balanced  comer  de- 
sign, but  the  continuous  pattern  must  be  modified  at 
the  corners  or  a  block  or  a  panel  design  must  be  put 
in  at  the  corners  to  cover  the  tum. 

Designs  for  Other  Table  Linens 

Napkins  in  sets  to  match  table  cloths  have  the  same 
designs  in  a  smaller  size. 


142 


LINEN  DEPARTMENT 


Doilies  are  made  in  symmetrical  or  semi-symmetrical 
patterns. 

Circular  table  cloths,  napkins,  and  doilies  have  either 
a  design  radiating  from  the  center  or  a  circular  border 
around  a  plain  or  diapered  center.  The  central  de- 
sign may  extend  to  the  edge  or  it  may  occupy  only 
that  part  of  the  table  cloth  supposed  to  lie  on  the  table, 
while  the  hanging  part  has  a  circular  border  pattern. 


Chapter  XXII 

FANCY  LINENS 

Classification 

Fancy  linens  are  found  in  the  Linen  Department,  but 
they  have  their  separate  counters.  They  include  lace- 
trimmed  and  embroidered  linens  for: 

Dresser  Scarfs 

Sideboard  Covers 

Table  Covers 

Squares 

Cases  for  Handkerchiefs,  etc. 

Tea  Napkins 

Tray  Cloths 

Doilies 

Luncheon  Sets 

Japanese  Bungalow  Sets 

These  are  all  made  in  foreign  countries.  The  best 
are  made  in  Great  Britain.  The  cheapest  goods  came 
originally  from  Belgium,  Germany,  Switzerland, 
France,  and  Japan. 

Although  these  embroidered  linens  are  sent  from 

143 


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144 


LINEN  DEPARTMENT 


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different  countries  they  are  almost  entirely  worked 
upon  Irish-made  linens.  Since  labor  is  cheap  in  Japan 
that  country  exports  quantities  of  goods  of  this  kind 
that  may  be  sold  at  reasonable  prices. 

Laces 

The  laces  used  in  fancy  linens  are : 

Cluny,  a  heavy  bobbin  lace. 
Filet,  a  square  mesh  lace. 

Renaissance,  a  lace  made  of  braid  formed  in  pat- 
terns. 

Torchon,  a  bobbin  lace  made  in  simple  patterns. 

All  of  these  laces  were  originally  made  by  hand  of 
linen  thread,  but  all  of  them  are  now  imitated  in  a 
cotton  lace  made  by  machine.  Though  Cluny  and 
Torchon  lace  are  both  made  with  bobbins  the  Cluny 
has  more  elaborate  patterns,  which  are  darned  on  an 
open  ground.  Some  Cluny  sets  are  hand-made.  Re- 
naissance or  Battenberg  lace  is  not  used  so  much  as 
it  was  a  few  years  ago.  Filet,  which  is  very  popular 
at  present,  is  an  imitation  of  the  expensive  hand-made 
filet. 

Embroidery 

The  embroidery  on  fancy  linens  is  usually  done  by 
machine,  that  done  on  the  Swiss  embroidery  machines 
being  almost  equal  to  hand  work. 


FANCY  LINENS 


145 


Madeira  embroidery,  which  is  seen  on  tea  napkins, 
tray  cloths,  doilies,  and  small  table  cloths  is  done  by 
hand.  Sometimes,  however,  in  cheaper  grades  the 
edge  is  done  by  machine.  The  patterns  are  usually  in 
one  corner  of  the  cloth  and  the  edge  is  scalloped. 

Drawn-Work 

Mexican  drawn-work  is  also  seen  in  all  fancy  linens. 
Sometimes  the  center  of  small  doilies  consists  entirely 
of  drawn-work,  sometimes  it  occupies  the  comers  or 
runs  around  the  cloth  as  an  insertion. 

The  drawn- work  is  made  by  drawing  out  a  part  of 
the  threads  of  a  piece  of  cloth,  and  using  the  remain- 
ing threads  as  a  base  for  elaborate  designs  made  with 
a  needle. 

Japanese  Sets 

Japanese  bungalow  sets  are  made  of  soft  cotton 
materials  printed  in  attractive  designs. 

Imitations 

These  articles  may  also  be  found  at  lower  prices, 
made  of  union  materials,  that  is,  linen  and  cotton. 
However,  they  should  be  so  marked  that  inexperienced 
salespeople  will  know  that  they  are  not  pure  linen. 

A  store  in  which  this  is  done  soon  gains  a  reputa- 
tion as  a  "  reliable  store  "  and  gains  rather  than  loses 
purchasers,  especially  if  the  salespeople  can  show  de- 
finitely the  reasons  for  variations  in  price. 


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Chapter  XXIII 

THE  HANDKERCHIEF  DEPARTMENT 
Location 

Handkerchiefs  are  usually  found  in  a  separate  de- 
partment, seldom  with  other  linen  goods.  Men's 
handkerchiefs,  for  instance,  are  often  sold  in  the  riien's 
furnishing  department. 

Handkerchief 

The  name  comes  from  the  words  "hand"  and 
"kerchief."  Kerchief  originally  meant  a  cloth  to 
cover  the  head.  A  handkerchief  is  a  small  square 
piece  of  linen,  cotton,  or  silk  cloth,  carried  for  the 
purpose  of  wiping  the  face  or  hands. 

Materials 

Linen  is  the  best  material  for  handkerchiefs  be- 
cause it  is  soft,  absorbs  moisture  quickly,  and  launders 
well.  Cotton  is  very  apt  to  be  harsh  and  to  lose  its 
finish  in  laundering ;  also  it  does  not  absorb  moisture 
readily.  Nevertheless  large  quantities  of  cotton  and 
union  handkerchiefs  are  made  and  sold,  many  of  them 
erroneously  marked  "  pure  linen."     Fine  lawn  is  used 

146 


HANDKERCHIEF  DEPARTMENT 


147 


frequently.  Some  "Irish  linen"  handkerchiefs  are 
only  50  to  60  per  cent  linen,  the  rest  being  cotton. 

Silk  does  not  absorb  moisture  readily  and  although 
silk  handkerchiefs  have  been  popular  at  times  they 
are  more  suitable  as  kerchiefs  for  the  head  or  neck 
than  for  the  hand. 

Lace  handkerchiefs  also  have  been  very  fashionable 
at  times.  They  consist  of  small  squares  of  linen 
bordered  with  lace.  Real  lace  handkerchiefs  of  ex- 
quisite quality  and  workmanship  are  among  the  most 
costly  articles  in  a  woman's  wardrobe. 

Mourning  handkerchiefs  are  edged  with  black  bor- 
ders of  various  widths.  They  are  not  often  used  except 
by  people  in  deep  mourning. 

Grades  and  Sizes 

The  cheapest  handkerchiefs  are  machine  hemmed; 
the  next  grade  may  be  machine  hemstitched.  There 
are  handkerchiefs  with  hand  hemstitching,  embroidery, 
or  lace-trimmed  edges,  and  initials;  the  embroidered 
and  initialed  ones  naturally  being  higher  priced. 
Many  stores  take  orders  for  special  monograms  or 
initials  to  be  embroidered  on  handkerchiefs. 

Handkerchief  sizes  range  from  12  to  18  inches 
square  for  women,  and  from  20  to  22  inches  for  men. 
The  hems  vary  in  width  from  one-fourth  of  an  inch 
to  one  inch. 


148 


LINEN  DEPARTMENT 


Handkerchiefs  of  the  cheaper  grades  are  put  up  in 
boxes  containing  five  dozen.  The  better  grades  have 
a  dozen  or  a  half  dozen  in  each  box. 

Designs  for  Handkerchiefs 
There  are  four  types  of  patterns  for  handkerchiefs: 

Patterns  which  follow  the  border. 

Patterns  repeated  in  each  of  the  four  comers. 

Patterns  for  one  corner  only. 

Initials  or  monograms  more  or  less  elaborate. 

Patterns  which  follow  the  border  should  be  small 
and  symmetrical.  If  flower  forms  are  used  they 
should  be  conventionalized  and  the  best  balanced  de- 
signs are  the  most  satisfactory.  Geometrical  designs, 
as  the  fret  or  key  pattern,  squares,  or  scrolls  may  be 
used  effectively.  Corded  or  colored  stripes  are  used 
in  less  expensive  grades. 

If  the  pattern  is  repeated  in  each  of  the  corners  it 
may  have  a  little  more  freedom  than  a  border  pattern 
but  it  should  be  a  "  turnover,"  that  is,  one  which  has 
its  two  sides  exactly  corresponding  but  turned  in  the 
opposite  direction. 

A  pattern  for  one  comer  only  may  be  very  elaborate. 
It  is  usually  more  effective  when  the  handkerchief  is 
folded  than  when  it  is  spread  out  as  the  "comer" 
often  looks  out  of  proportion  to  the  rest  of  the  square. 


HANDKERCHIEF  DEPARTMENT 


149 


Unsymmetrical  figures  such  as  sprays  of  flowers 
strewn  across  the  corner,  or  several  figures  turned  the 
same  way,  are  very  inartistic  designs. 

Initials  or  monograms  either  plain  or  in  a  more  or 
less  ornamental  frame  are  the  best  decoration  for  the 
single  comer.  There  is  an  obvious  reason  for  not 
repeating  initials  and  usually  they  are  not  so  large  as 
to  look  out  of  proportion.  Some  very  long  narrow 
initials,  however,  are  out  of  proportion. 

History 

Handkerchiefs  were  originally  made  of  silk  and  are 
first  mentioned  in  the  chronicles  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. Originally  these  pieces  of  silk  cloth  were  used 
only  by  priests  at  the  altar,  but  gradually  they  came 
into  general  use.  The  Empress  Josephine  is  said  to 
have  made  them  popular  and  now  they  have  become 
an  indispensable  article. 

Centers  of  Industry 

Linen  handkerchiefs  are  made  in  Ireland,  Scotland, 
Belgium,  Germany,  France,  and  Switzerland.  Most 
of  the  pure  linen  handkerchiefs  come  from  Belfast, 
Ireland.  The  finest  grades  of  embroidered  handker- 
chiefs come  from  Ireland,  although  the  greatest 
quantities  are  made  in  Switzerland,  the  principal  center 
being  St.  Gall. 

Many  of  the  Swiss  handkerchiefs  are  of  cotton. 


I50 


LINEN  DEPARTMENT 


embroidered  by  machine;  while  the  Irish  handker- 
chiefs are  embroidered  by  hand,  though  in  the  less 
expensive  grades  these  also  are  made  partly  of  cotton. 
Fine  lawn  handkerchiefs  come  from  France  and 
Switzerland.  Silk  handkerchiefs  are  imported  from 
China  and  Japan. 


Chapter  XXIV 

HISTORY  OF  LINEN 

Ancient  Manufacture 

The  cultivation  of  the  flax  plant  and  the  spinning 
and  weaving  of  linen  began  in  very  early  times. 
Linen  is  mentioned  in  the  Bible  as  a  part  of  the  priests' 
clothing  at  the  time  of  the  exodus  from  Egypt,  which 
took  place  more  than  three  thousand  years  ago.'  Very 
fine  linen  is  found  in  Egyptian  mummy  cases. 

The  Greeks  and  Romans  imported  their  linen  from 
Egypt  at  first,  but  later  made  it  themselves. 

Medieval  Manufacture 

In  the  tenth  century  linen  markets  were  established 
in  Bruges,  Courtrai,  and  other  places.  During  the 
eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  many  Flemish  weavers 
went  to  England  and  built  up  the  linen  industry  there. 

From  that  time  until  the  eighteenth  century  flax 
was  the  most  important  vegetable  fiber,  and  the  manu- 
facture of  linen  was  general  in  western  Europe;  but 
during  all  of  this  period  the  cultivation  of  the  flax  and 
the  spinning  and  weaving  of  the  cloth  were  solely 
home  industries. 

ISI 


HIHii 


152 


LINEN  DEPARTMENT 


Introduction  of  Machinery 

Then  the  introduction  of  machinery  stimulated  the 
manufacture  of  cotton  which,  on  account  of  its  short 
fiber,  had  been  hard  to  spin  by  hand ;  and  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century  cotton  cloth  began  to 
displace  linen  because  it  was  so  much  cheaper.  The 
demand  for  good  linen,  however,  has  almost  always 
been  greater  than  the  supply.  The  European  coun- 
tries which  have  developed  linen  manufacture  arc  Ire- 
land, Scotland,  England,  Belgium,  France,  Germany, 
Austria,  and  Russia.     (See  Appendix.) 

Cultivation  in  the  United  States 

Flax  was  introduced  into  this  country  by  the  early 
colonists,  the  records  showing  that  it  was  grown  in 
Massachusetts  as  early  as  1630.  Its  manufacture 
into  linen  was,  however,  only  a  household  industry  for 
family  use  and  very  little  was  sold.  Flax  was  also 
grown  in  Vermont,  Connecticut,  New  York,  and  New 
Jersey,  but  with  the  increased  use  of  cotton  the  in- 
dustry declined. 

At  present  flax  is  grown  in  the  United  States  for 
its  seed;  only  a  few  coarse  varieties  of  cloth  being 
manufactured  from  it. 

Manufacture  in  the  United  States 
The  linen  products  manufactured  in  this  country  are 


HISTORY  OF  LINEN 


153 


chiefly  thread  and  twine,  and  coarse  linen  toweling; 
but  the  industry  is  a  growing  one. 

Effect  of  European  War 

The  European  war  has  so  limited  the  manufacture 
and  export  of  linen  that  prices  have  more  than  doubled 
and  very  little  pure  linen  can  be  had  at  any  price. 
Nearly  all  of  that  now  sold  is  union  goods,  that  is,  a 
mixture  of  linen  and  cotton. 

A  Belfast  report  stated  that  during  the  first  six 
months  of  191 5,  2,664  tons  of  cotton  were  imported 
to  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  union  fabrics.  Dur- 
ing the  same  period  in  1916,  5,021  tons  of  cotton  were 
imported  for  this  purpose. 


!i 


Part  III — Suggestions  to  Salespeople 

and  Customers 


Chapter  XXV 

SELLING  SUGGESTIONS 

Arrangement  and  Display 

In  the  departments  where  colored  cotton  or  linen 
fabrics  are  sold,  there  is  a  large  opportunity  to  arrange 
effective  and  artistic  displays  by  good  color  combina- 
tions. 

Many  of  the  colored  fabrics  are  shown  on  the 
counters,  the  bolt  either  lying  flat  or  standing  on  end, 
with  part  of  the  material  unrolled  and  hanging  down. 
A  pleasing  and  effective  color  combination  will  draw 
customers  to  the  counter  while  a  confusion  of  colors 
with  bad  color  harmony  will  cause  people  to  turn 
away,  not  even  stopping  to  look  for  the  material  which 
they  may  really  want. 

In  showing  materials  a  fabric  should  be  taken  away 
if  it  spoils  the  effect  of  other  colors  which  are  being 
shown.  Otherwise  a  sale  may  be  lost.  On  the 
shelves  also  a  more  pleasing  effect  is  gained  if  the 

154 


SELLING  SUGGESTIONS 


155 


arrangement    of    color    combinations    is    considered. 

In  displaying  fabrics,  ideas  for  trimming  one  fabric 
with  another  may  be  given  and  ways  of  making  up 
the  material  suggested. 

In  order  to  keep  goods  looking  fresh  and  clean  they 
should  be  put  away  quickly  after  they  have  been 
shown.     This  also  keeps  the  counter  looking  well. 

Materials 

When  one  is  beginning  to  sell  materials  the  names 
of  the  fabrics  and  the  sections  in  which  they  are  kept 
should  be  learned  as  soon  as  possible.  The  widths 
and  prices  must  be  learned,  and  most  important  of  all 
the  quality  of  the  materials,  whether  the  quality  is 
worth  the  price  and  why  it  is  worth  the  price. 

In  selling  yard  goods  care  must  be  taken  to  give 
the  correct  measurement.  Every  customer  wants  the 
full  amount  for  which  she  pays,  but  if  several  inches 
too  much  is  given  to  each  customer,  the  profit  for  the 
department  is  considerably  lessened  and  perhaps  lost 
entirely. 

A  salesperson  must  learn  to  cut  materials  straight 
as  much  loss  may  come  to  the  department  through  the 
straightening  which  may  be  necessary  later. 

With  materials  that  may  be  torn,  not  only  the  first 
selvage  must  be  cut  but  the  selvage  at  the  opposite  side 
also.    Otherwise  the  material  may  tear  along  side  of 


N 


156        TO  SALESPEOPLE  AND  CUSTOMERS 

the  selvage  and  not  across  it.  Unless  the  material  is 
torn  quickly  there  is  danger  that  it  may  tear  down  on 
some  heavier  lengthwise  thread  instead  of  straight 
across. 

Suggestions  as  to  Care 

Salespersons  are  often  asked  if  goods  will  shrink 
or  fade  and  they  should  know  something  of  the  shrink- 
age of  their  goods  and  the  effect  of  water  and  heat 
on  different  materials.  For  instance,  a  cheap  cotton 
material  usually  becomes  thin  and  sleazy  after  wash- 
ing because  the  starch  washes  out  and  leaves  a  poor 
loosely  woven  material.  Again,  hot  water,  a  hot  iron, 
and  strong  sunshine  will  fade  colors.  Hot  water  may 
cause  colors  to  "run,"  as  with  materials  which  are 
made  up  of  a  colored  stripe  and  a  white  stripe  where 
the  color  runs  into  the  white. 

Suitability 

The  salesperson  is  often  asked  to  suggest  materials 
suitable  for  certain  occasions  or  purposes.  In  order 
to  advise  a  customer  intelligently  she  should  study  the 
patterns  and  color  combinations  of  her  stock,  observe 
the  choices  made  by  her  customers,  and  listen  to  their 
comments.  Then  she  must  use  her  own  judgment 
with  regard  to  their  value,  training  her  own  eyes  and 
her  own  taste  by  looking  at  the  best  models. 

Handsome  linens  are  often  purchased  for  gifts,  par- 


SELLING  SUGGESTIONS 


157 


ticularly  for  wedding  gifts,  and  the  customer  wishes 
to  know  what  patterns  are  most  approved  as  well  as 
what  styles  are  suitable  for  the  purpose.  When  an- 
other person's  taste  is  to  be  considered  the  salesperson 
is  often  called  upon  to  give  an  opinion.  If  she  can 
give  good  reasons  for  her  suggestions  the  customer 
will  rely  upon  her  judgment. 

Manufacture 

The  salesperson  who  understands  something  of  the 
source  and  growth  of  the  raw  material  of  which  fabrics 
are  made,  as  well  as  the  manufacture  of  this  raw 
material  into  cloth,  will  understand  better  the  differ- 
ences in  the  qualities  of  fabrics,  and  will  be  able  to 
explain  when  necessary  the  difference  in  the  cost  of 
materials,  that  is,  why  some  can  be  bought  for  a  small 
price  and  why  others  are  expensive. 

The  question  of  frankness  about  quality  is  often 
raised,  especially  with  regard  to  the  adulteration  of 
linen  with  cotton.  Very  often  customers  will  ask 
whether  certain  low-priced  articles  are  all  linen.  A 
knowledge  of  qualities  is  most  necessary  when  dealing 
with  a  critical  customer. 

Upon  advising  the  salesgirls  to  tell  the  truth  in  an- 
swering questions,  one  replied :  "If,  when  they  ask 
us,  we  tell  them  the  squares  are  cotton  and  not  linen 
they  walk  away  from  the  counter  and  we  lose  a  sale." 


158 


TO  SALESPEOPLE  AND  CUSTOMERS 


Suppose  this  same  sale  were  made,  and  the  customer 
thought  she  was  buying  hnen  when  really  it  was  cotton 
finished  like  linen,  what  would  be  the  probable  result? 

Result  of  Misstatements 

The  customer  upon  examining  her  purchase  more 
closely  would  become  suspicious.  If  she  concluded  it 
was  not  linen,  the  article  would  be  returned ;  in  which 
case  not  only  would  the  sale  be  lost,  but  the  firm  would 
be  put  to  more  trouble  and  expense  than  if  the  sale  had 
been  lost  in  the  beginning. 

Again,  if  the  customer  did  not  at  first  discover  that 
the  material  was  cotton  she  would  detect  the  fraud 
after  it  was  laundered,  with  the  result  that  she  would 
lose  her  faith,  not  only  in  the  salesgirl,  but  also  in  the 
firm,  and  would  buy  her  linen  at  some  other  store  even 
if  she  paid  more  for  it,  which  probably  she  would  have 
been  willing  to  do  in  the  first  place. 

A  knowledge  of  the  manufacture  and  wearing  quali- 
ties of  mercerized  cotton  will  help  in  the  selling  of  that 
material  not  only  in  the  dress  goods  department  but 
also  in  the  table  linen  department  where  much  of  it  is 
sold  for  ordinary  household  use. 

History 

All  people  know  that  cotton  is  widely  used  but  not 
all  people  realize  that  this  has  been  made  possible 
through  the  invention  of  machinery. 


SELLING  SUGGESTIONS 


159 


Housewives  admire  fine  and  handsome  linen. 
They  also  know  that  it  is  expensive,  but  do  they  know 
that  the  hand  labor  required  in  the  preparation  of  the 
flax  fiber  is  one  reason  why  it  is  expensive  and  that  no 
machinery  has  been  invented  which  will  do  this  work 
successfully  ? 

Our  grandmothers  used  linen  instead  of  cotton  be- 
cause linen  could  be  more  easily  and  successfully  made 
by  hand  than  cotton.  Linen  was  the  first  material 
made,  and  it  has  been  used  for  centuries,  but  now  it  is 
being  replaced  more  and  more  by  cotton. 


Chapter  XXVI 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  PURCHASERS 

Considerations  in  Buying  Garments 

Cotton  and  linen  materials  are  bought  for  both 
personal  ^nd  household  use.  When  buying  garments 
the  purchaser  must  consider: 

1.  The  use  of  the  article,  as  for  outer  or  inner 

wearing  apparel,  the  season,  etc. 

2.  Its  suitability  to  one's  circumstances  and  to 

one's  purse. 

3.  Its  style  and  becomingness. 

4.  Its  durability. 

Very  often  style  is  the  only  question  considered; 
even  becomingness  takes  second  place  and  suitability 
or  durability  are  never  even  thought  of.  When  the 
garment  is  inexpensive  and  intended  only  for  one 
season  these  may  not  be  serious  matters,  but  women 
could  greatly  reduce  the  high  cost  of  their  clothing  if 
they  always  bought  good  materials  in  conservative  and 
becoming  styles  and  did  not  have  to  discard  them  after 

160 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  PURCHASERS 


161 


a  single   season.     This  is  especially   true  of   under- 
clothing. 

Considerations  in  Buying  Household  Goods 

For  household  use  the  appropriateness  of  diflFerent 
materials  varies  greatly.  Those  which  must  be  con- 
stantly laundered,  like  bedding,  table  linen,  or  towels, 
should  be  first  of  all  strong  and  firm.  Draperies  may 
serve  their  purpose  quite  well  when  rnade  of  rather 
inexpensive  material  in  good  and  suitable  colors  and 
designs. 

Buying  Good  Cotton  Materials 

Good  cotton  materials  wear  well  and  are  the  least 
expensive  of  any  on  the  market.  Good  materials  are 
known  by  their  firmness,  as  they  are  woven  of  well- 
twisted  yarns  made  of  good  cotton  fibers. 

When  purchasing  materials,  quality,  durability,  and 
suitability  should  be  considered  first.  Garments  made 
from  materials  purchased  by  the  yard  will  usually 
wear  better  and  cost  less  than  the  ready-to-wear  gar- 
ment. 

Mercerized  cotton  is  one  of  the  more  recent  products 
on  the  market  (see  pages  36-38).  It  is  made  from 
the  best  and  longest  cotton  fibers  and  the  mercerizing 
process  tends  to  strengthen  them  still  more.     It  may 


I62         TO  SALESPEOPLE  AND  CUSTOMERS 

be  recognized  by  its  gloss,  which  is  permanent  and 
which  will  not  disappear  when  the  material  is  laundered. 
All  materials  with  a  gloss  are  not  mercerized,  so  that 
the  purchaser  must  be  on  her  guard  to  see  that  she  is 
not  being  sold  a  substitute.  The  substitute,  "calen- 
dered" cotton,  may  be  detected  by  washing  a  sample ; 
the  beautiful  gloss  will  entirely  disappear. 

Choosing  Between  Cotton  and  Linen 

Since  the  war,  mercerized  cotton  has  taken  the  place 
of  Hnen  to  a  large  extent  because  linen  has  not  only 
become  very  expensive  but  is  very  hard  to  get.  Mer- 
cerized cotton  should  not  be  expected  to  look  like  linen 
nor  be  confused  with  linen.  It  serves  its  own  purpose 
as  an  inexpensive  material  but  will  never  look  so  well 
as  linen  although  it  may  wear  as  long.  After  a  time 
the  short  cotton  fibers  will  wear  up  and  make  a  fuzzy 
surface  which  is  not  seen  on  linen. 

For  table  cloths  and  napkins  for  ordinary  wear,  mer- 
cerized cotton  serves  a  good  purpose,  provided  one  is 
satisfied  and  realizes  that  it  is  cotton  and  not  linen. 
For  handsome  table  cloths  and  napkins  nothing  is  equal 
to  good  pure  linen. 

Linen  is  much  better  than  cotton  for  towels  because 
it  absorbs  moisture  readily.  Cotton  towels  do  not 
absorb  moisture  on  account  of  a  covering  of  wax  on 
the  fiber.     This  wax  may  be  removed  and  the  cotton 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  PURCHASERS 


163 


becomes  more  absorbent  but  at  its  best  it  does  not 
equal  linen  in  this  respect. 

The  best  linen  is  bleached  by  the  action  of  dew  and 
sunshine,  being  laid  on  the  grass  for  this  purpose; 
hence  it  will  wear  longer  than  linen  which  has  been 
chemically  bleached. 

Linen  does  not  dye  easily.  Consequently  there  is 
danger  that  it  will  not  hold  the  dye  or  retain  its  color. 
For  this  reason  white  and  natural-color  linens  are  used 
much  more  than  bright  colors. 

Adulterations 

A  demand  for  cheap  materials  and  the  increasing 
cost  of  production  has  caused  manufacturers  to  adul- 
terate materials  in  various  ways.  As  cotton  is  the 
cheapest  fiber  in  general  use,  it  is  not  adulterated  with 
other  fibers,  but  the  same  purpose,  that  of  reducing 
the  cost,  is  secured  by  using  short,  poor  cotton  fibers, 
which  make  a  thin,  "sleasy"  material.  This  is  then 
filled  with  starch  or  china  clay  in  the  finishing  process 
so  that  it  looks  strong  and  firm.  Such  heavy  sizing 
can  be  detected  as  indicated  on  page  42  by  holding  the 
material  to  the  light,  rubbing  it  between  the  fingers, 
or  boiling  a  sample.  The  first  test  is  very  easy  to 
make  and  is  fairly  reliable,  as  the  filling  is  not  evenly 
distributed  and  may  be  seen  between  the  meshes. 

Because  of  the  great  scarcity  of  linen  since  the  war 


*i 


I 


r 


164         TO  SALESPEOPLE  AND  CUSTOMERS 

a  very  large  part  of  that  which  is  on  the  market  is 
adulterated  with  other  fibers.  Even  the  Hnen-producing 
countries  import  cotton,  or  hemp,  to  mix  with  their 
supply  of  flax.  These  mixed  goods  will  often  answer 
the  purpose  very  well,  but  if  the  purchaser  wishes  to 
buy  really  "pure'*  linen  she  will  need  to  apply  the  tests 
given  on  pages  112  and  113. 

To  the  experienced  eye  the  light  test  may  be  suf- 
ficient, and  there  is  also  a  great  diflPerence  in  the  feel- 
ing of  the  two  materials,  but  when  the  adulteration  is 
not  too  great  and  is  cleverly  done  the  burning,  tearing, 
or  even  microscopic  or  acid  test  may  be  necessary. 
Formerly  the  moisture  test  could  be  applied  by  merely 
wetting  the  finger,  but  now  cotton  can  be  so  treated 
that  it  will  seem  to  absorb  moisture  in  small  quantities 
as  well  as  linen.  Time  is  the  best  test  but  unfortunately 
that  does  not  help  the  buyer.  Linen  not  only  wears 
longer  than  cotton  but  retains  its  beautiful  gloss  and 
satiny  softness  to  the  end,  thus  justify  the  higher  price. 

The  Historic  Interest  of  Textile  Study 

To  the  purchaser  who  becomes  interested  in  textile 
study,  the  history  of  textiles  will  be  most  fascinating. 
Women  since  the  early  days  of  the  race  have  made 
cloth  for  household  use.  They  have  worked  beautiful 
designs  into  it,  having  no  inspiration  but  tliat  of  their 
simple  surroundings.     But  they  knew  what  kind  of 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  PURCHASERS 


165 


cloth  they  were  making,  for  they  began  with  the  fiber 
itself  and  worked  it  up  to  the  cloth.  They  did  not 
depend  upon  the  fancy  of  manufacturers  who  were  so 
desirous  of  cheapening  the  material  or  adapting  them- 
selves to  the  constant  change  in  style  that  they  cared 
little  for  real  beauty  or  durability. 

Uses  of  Cotton  Materials 

The  following  suggestions  as  to  the  materials  suit- 
able for  various  purposes  will  often  be  of  service. 

For  Waists  and  Dresses 


Batiste 

Organdie 

Chambray 

Percale 

Corduroy 

Persian  Lawn 

Crepe 

Pique 

Dimity 

Poplin 

Gingham 

Ratine 

Indian  Head 

Swiss 

Lawn 

Voile 

Madras 

For 

Undergarments 

Cambric 

Muslin 

Crepe 

Canton  Flannel 

Nainsook 

Flannelette 

Long  Cloth 

Lonsdale,  and  c 

f] 


l66        TO  SALESPEOPLE  AND  CUSTOMERS 


Pot  Aprons 

Calico 

Muslin 

Gingham 

Percale 

Lawn 

Swiss 

Long  Cloth 

For  Kimonos,  Negligees,  Petticoats 
Flannelette  Dimity 

For  Infants*  and  Children's  Dresses 

Batiste  Nainsook 

Lawn  Persian  Lawn 

Long  Cloth 

For  Children's  Coats 
Velveteen  Corduroy 


For 

Middy  Blouses 

Drilling 

Duck 

Galatea 

Indian  Head 
Khaki 

For  Skirts 

Duck 

Indian  Head 
Khaki 

Pique 

Poplin 

Ratine 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  PURCHASERS 


167 


For  Rompers 

Drilling 
Gingham 
Indian  Head 

Khaki 
Seersucker 

For  Linings 

Percaline 
Lace  Net 
Lawn 

Sateen 
Silkaline 

m 


Chapter  XXVII 

LAUNDERING  OF  COTTON  AND  LINEN 

FABRICS 

Knowledge  of  Laundering 

Nearly  all  the  goods  sold  in  the  cotton  and  linen 
departments  are  bought  with  the  expectation  that  they 
may  be  laundered  without  injury.  It  is  therefore 
very  necessary  for  a  salesperson  to  know  what  are  the 
best  methods  of  laundering  and  what  materials  re- 
quire special  treatment,  in  order  that  she  may  be  able 
to  advise  the  customer  and  prevent  the  dissatisfaction 
which  arises  from  ignorance  or  carelessness. 

All  materials,  before  being  brought  to  the  stores, 
have  been  pressed  in  some  way.  Most  of  them  have 
been  passed  between  rollers.  Some  of  them  have 
been  washed.  White  linens  have  been  washed  and 
bleached. 

Primitive  Methods  of  Laundering 

In  early  days  women  washed  their  linen  by  holding 
it  or  shaking  it  in  running  water  or  by  pounding  and 
rubbing  it  on  a  flat  stone.    The  second  method,  still 

l68 


LAUNDERING 


169 


practiced  in  some  European  countries,  is  very  hard  on 
linen  or  cotton  cloth. 

Usual  Method 

The  methods  of  laundering  used  by  our  grand- 
mothers and  familiar  to  most  of  us  are: 

Soaking  the  clothes  for  some  time  in  a  tub  of 

cold  water. 
Soaping  the  soiled  spots  and  rubbing  them  on  a 

wash  board. 
Boiling,  rinsing,  bluing,  and  starching. 
Wringing,  drying,  and  ironing. 

Labor-Saving  Devices 

Washing  machines  replace  tubs  and  boards  and  as 
they  cleanse  by  forcing  streams  of  water  through  the 
material  instead  of  rubbing  it  against  a  hard  board 
they  are  less  severe  on  the  fabric. 

Gas  and  electric  irons  which  retain  their  heat  are 
often  substituted  for  the  iron  that  requires  reheating. 
Mangles  are  much  used  for  pressing  or  "  mangling  " 
table  and  toilet  linen,  bedding,  and  all  flat  work. 
Mangles  are  machines  with  large  rollers,  one  of  which 
is  usually  heated  and  the  other  cloth  covered  like  an 
ironing  board.  Cloth  may  be  pressed  between  these 
rollers. 
Effect  of  Washing  on  Fibers 

Cotton  and  linen  are  vegetable  fibers  and  are  of  a 


i 


I70 


TO  SALESPEOPLE  AND  CUSTOMERS 


LAUNDERING 


171 


V  ' 


h; 


V: 


woody  nature.  They  are  strong  and  tough  and  may 
be  washed,  boiled,  starched,  and  ironed  without  in- 
jury. All  cotton  goods  will  shrink,  but  linen  does 
not  shrink  unless  mixed  with  cotton.  Coarse-weave 
linen  will  stretch.  Some  dyes  do  not  unite  readily  with 
cotton  and  linen  and  therefore  the  colors  fade,  and 
some  fabrics  lose  their  finish  when  laundered.  Linen 
launders  more  easily  than  cotton,  but  must  be  handled 
more  carefully,  as  the  fibers  are  brittle  and  liable  to 
break,  especially  if  starched  stifif.  Care  should  be 
taken  in  the  laundering  of  all  delicate  fabrics,  es- 
pecially in  regard  to  the  materials  used  in  soap,  starch, 
and  bluing.  Clothes  often  become  yellow  from  care- 
less washing. 

Bleaches 

The  best  bleaches  for  cotton  and  linen  arc  sunshine, 
moisture,  and  fresh  air.  Chloride  of  lime  is  used  in 
the  mills.  The  chemical  weakens  the  fibers  somewhat, 
which  accounts  for  the  fact  that  unbleached  materials 
are  stronger  than  bleached. 

Cleansing  Materials 

Laundry  soaps  are  made  of  a  combination  of  fat 
with  an  alkali  (usually  caustic  soda).  They  also  con- 
tain soda,  borax,  ammonia,  kerosene,  benzene,  and 
naphtha.     Soda,   borax,   and   ammonia  add  to   the 


cleansing  properties,  but  should  not  be  too  strong. 
Kerosene  loosens  the  dirt  and  also  softens  the  water, 
while  benzene  and  naphtha  cut  the  grease. 

Yellow  and  White  Soaps 

Some  laundry  soaps  are  white  and  some  are  yellow. 
White  soaps  have  been  found  by  chemical  analysis  to 
be  purer  than  yellow  or  darker  soaps.  Yellow  soaps 
contain  resin,  which  is  a  gum  from  trees.  This  resin 
aids  in  forming  suds,  but  as  the  suds  are  sticky  and 
gum-like,  they  often  cause  a  scum  to  form,  which  will 
adhere  to  the  clothes.  The  sticky  feeling  of  the 
yellow  soaps  is  caused  by  the  resin. 

Quality  of  Soap 

The  quality  of  any  soap  depends  upon  the  cleanness 
of  the  fat,  the  proportion  of  fat  and  alkali,  and  the 
kind  and  amount  of  other  substances. 

Soaps  which  contain  strong  soda,  borax,  etc.,  should 
never  be  used  for  fine  materials,  though  they  serve  a 
useful  purpose  in  cleaning  heavy  fabrics  which  have 
been  much  soiled. 

Other  Forms  of  Soap 

There  are  many  soap  powders  on  the  market,  which 
are  powdered  soap  with  more  or  less  washing  soda. 

Soap  flakes  come  in  pure  form  and  may  be  used 
instead  of  cake  soap  in  the  laundering  of  delicate 
fabrics. 


1 


«H 


V  i 


(• 


172         TO  SALESPEOPLE  AND  CUSTOMERS 

Soap  solution  is  made  by  dissolving  shavings  of 
cake  soap  or  soap  chips  in  hot  water.  This  on  cooling 
forms  a  jelly,  which  may  be  kept  and  used  in  washing 
all  colored  materials. 

Washing  soda  is  used  in  many  home  laundries,  but 
as  it  contains  an  excess  of  alkali,  it  is  a  dangerous 
substitute  for  pure  soap. 

Substitutes  for  Soap 

If  the  color  seems  very  uncertain,  substitutes  such 
as  soap  bark,  bran  water,  or  starch  water  may  be 
used,  as  it  is  the  alkali  in  the  soap  which  often  affects 
the  color.  None  of  these  substitutes,  however,  are 
useful  if  water  alone  affects  the  color. 

If  bran  or  soap  bark  is  used,  four  cups  are  required 
to  one  gallon  of  water. 

For  starch  water,  3  tablespoons  of  starch  to  i 
gallon  of  water  should  be  used. 

Each  of  these  may  be  cooked  20  minutes,  then 
strained,  and  the  water  which  is  left  used  in  the  place 
of  a  soap  solution  in  the  wash  water.  Wash  and  rinse 
as  usual.  If  starch  is  used  there  would  be  enough 
starch  left  after  the  rinsing  water  to  give  a  slight 
stiffness  if  the  material  is  ironed  wet. 

Starch 

Starch  is  a  substance  contained  in  the  cells  of  grain 
and  of  some  other  plants.     Heat  and  moisture  cause 


LAUNDERING 


173 


these  small  granules  to  burst  and  form  a  jelly-like 
substance. 

The  sizings  which  manufacturers  put  into  the  cloth 
are  often  made  of  starch.  This  adds  weight  to  the 
cloth  and  fills  in  the  spaces  between  the  threads,  es- 
pecially if  the  material  is  cheap  and  loosely  woven. 
The  starch  also  stiffens  the  material  and  prevents  its 
soiling  and  mussing  when  handled. 

Laundry  starch  comes  principally  from  corn,  rice, 
wheat,  and  potatoes. 

Corn  starch  is  the  cheapest  sort  and  is  consequently 
used  the  most.     The  results  are  very  satisfactory. 

Rice  starch  is  the  most  expensive,  but  it  is  par- 
ticularly good  for  fine  meshes,  lingerie,  and  sheer 
dainty  fabrics  as  it  gives  a  new  finish  to  the  material. 

Wheat  starch  is  used  in  public  laundries,  as  it  gives 
stiffness  and  pliability  to  the  material. 

Potato  starch  is  in  use  in  the  factories  as  a  filling 
for  cloth. 

Substitutes  for  starch  are  borax,  gum  arabic,  glue, 
and  dextrin,  which  are  especially  good  for  colored 
goods  and  are  used  where  the  white  starch  might 
show. 

Recipe  for  Starch 

To  one  quart  of  water  add  from  i  to  3  tablespoon- 
fuls  of  starch  according  to  the  thickness  of  the  article 


174 


TO  SALESPEOPLE  AND  CUSTOMERS 


to  be  starched.    Add  also  one-half  teaspoonful  of  fat 
and  one-half  teaspoonful  of  borax. 

Starch  should  boil  gently  for  at  least  fifteen  min- 
utes. Otherwise  it  will  not  be  sufficiently  cooked  and 
will  leave  white  spots  on  the  garment  and  the  iron. 
The  heat  of  the  iron  continues  the  cooking  process. 
Starch  must  not  be  too  thick. 

Bluing 

Bluing  is  used  to  whiten  clothes.  Careless  washing 
with  dark  colored  soaps  often  causes  cloth  to  become 
yellow.     Bluing  counteracts  this  tendency. 

Kinds  of  Bluing 

The  kinds  of  bluing  are :  indigo,  of  vegetable  origin 
from  the  indigo  plant ;  ultramarine,  of  mineral  origin ; 
Prussian  blue,  a  chemical  compound ;  and  aniline  blue, 
a  chemical  product  made  from  coal  tar.  Indigo  is 
also  now  manufactured  chemically.  Bluing  is  sold 
either  in  solid  or  liquid  form. 

Indigo  was  the  first  bluing  used,  but  the  color  is 
dark  and  dull.  This  fact,  together  with  the  cost  of 
manufacturing,  makes  it  less  desirable  now  that  other 
blues  may  be  obtained.     It  comes  in  solid  form. 

Ultramarine  blue  came  originally  from  the  stone 
lapis  lazuli,  which  was  ground  fine.  It  is  now  manu- 
factured chemically.     It  has  a  bright  color  and  is 


LAUNDERING 


175 


much  used  in  the  home.     This  is  the  bluing  which  is 
sold  in  little  balls. 

Prussian  blue  is  of  chemical  origin  with  a  com- 
pound of  iron  as  one  of  its  bases.  It  is  of  greenish 
color  and  sold  in  liquid  form.  It  is  used  in  many 
households,  but  if  the  clothes  are  not  thoroughly  rinsed 
or  if  any  of  the  blue  is  left  in  the  clothes,  the  iron  m 
its  composition  will  unite  with  the  alkali  of  the  soap 
and  iron  rust  spots  will  appear  on  the  clothes  in  a  most 
unaccountable  manner. 

Aniline  blue  is  a  strong  dye  and  only  a  small 
quantity  is  required.  It  is  sold  in  solid  or  liquid  form. 
As  compared  with  other  blues  it  is  cheaper  and  more 
effective  and  gives  a  good  clear  color.  It  is  used  prin- 
cipally by  public  laundries. 

Proper  Methods  of  Laundering 

1.  To  Prevent  Shrinking,  Cotton  goods  should  be 
shrunk  before  making.  Goods  shrink  less  when 
washed  and  dried  quickly  and  ironed  before  they  are 
entirely  dry.  Cotton  goods  will  average  one  or  two 
inches  shrinkage  to  the  yard.  Linen  goods  shrink 
very  little,  but  coarsely  woven  linen  will  stretch. 

2.  To  Prevent  Fading: 

(a)  Use  pure  or  white  soap  for  all  colored 
cotton  and  linen  goods.  Strong  soap 
should  not  be  used  and  no  soap  should 


176         TO  SALESPEOPLE  AND  CUSTOMERS 

ever  be  rubbed  on  the  fabric,  but  soap 
jelly  should  be  made  and  dissolved  in 
the  water. 

(b)  Warm  water,  not  hot,  should  be  used. 

(c)  Soaking  in  strong  salt  and  water  before 

washing  will  help  to  set  the  dye. 

(d)  Materials  of  different  colors  should  never 

be  washed  in  the  same  water,  as  the 
colors  from  one  material  may  be  trans- 
ferred to  the  other. 

(e)  Articles  should  be  hung  in  the  shade  to 

dry  as  strong  sunshine  will  fade  them. 
Fading  is  more  often  due  to  careless 
drying  than  to  any  fault  in  washing. 

(f)  Colored  goods  should  not  be  folded  when 

wet  or  ironed  with  a  very  hot  iron. 

(g)  Colored  articles  should  not  be  laid  next 

to  white  ones   for  the  color  may  be 
transferred  to  the  white  ones, 
(h)  Strong  bluing  will  strengthen  a  blue. 

3.  To  Set  Colors.  This  process  must  precede  the 
washing.  Salt,  vinegar,  or  sugar  of  lead,  a  poison, 
may  be  used,  according  to  the  color  of  the  article. 

For  general  purposes  salt  is  used  for  setting  or 
brightening  colors.  Use  one  tablespoon  ful  to  one 
quart  of  cold  water.  Soak  the  garment  in  this  solu- 
tion for  an  hour  or  more,  then  rinse  thoroughly  in 


LAUNDERING 


m 


two  or  more  waters  to  remove  the  salt,  which  if  al- 
lowed to  remain  will  prevent  the  soap  from  making  a 
good  suds. 

Vinegar  is  sometimes  preferred  for  purple  and 
black,  as  it  not  only  fixes  the  color  but  may  restore 
the  tint  to  a  faded  purple  or  violet.  Use  one-fourth 
cup  of  vinegar  to  one  gallon  of  water,  allowing  the 
garment  to  soak  for  an  hour  or  two  before  washing. 

Sugar  of  lead  may  be  used  for  delicate  greens, 
blues,  and  tans,  one  teaspoonful  to  one  gallon  of  luke- 
warm water.  Stir  until  dissolved.  Soak  for  one 
hour,  wash,  etc. 

4.  For  Gloss  and  Finish.  Linen  table  cloths  and 
napkins  should  be  ironed  when  quite  damp,  and  the 
ironing  should  be  continued  on  both  sides  of  the  cloth 
until  it  is  "  bone  dry."  This  gives  linen  its  beautiful 
gloss.  Mercerized  cotton  keeps  its  gloss  after  launder- 
ing, but  calendered  cloth,  an  imitation  of  mercerized, 
loses  its  finish. 

Mangling  is  a  quick  and  easy  method  of  pressing, 
but  it  hardens  linen,  leaves  a  poor  gloss  and  gradually 
wears  off  the  fiber,  leaving  it  thin  and  sleazy. 

Special  Directions 

Embroidered  waists  and  similar  things  should  be 
ironed  on  the  wrong  side  over  several  thicknesses  of 
flannel  or  a  turkish  towel  so  that  the  embroidery  may 


178         TO  SALESPEOPLE  AND  CUSTOMERS 

sink  into  the  soft  material  and  not  be  ironed  flat. 
Corduroy  may  be  washed  in  warm,  soapy  water  by 
sousing  it  up  and  down.  It  is  then  rinsed  in  the  same 
way  and  hung  dripping  on  the  hne  to  dry.  Garments 
should  be  put  on  a  hanger  or  hung  by  the  belt,  as  the 
line  will  mark  them.  When  nearly  dry  the  nap  should 
be  brushed  and  smoothed  down. 


Chapter  XXVIII 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  STOCK  OF  UNEN 

DEPARTMENT 

A  —  Linen  Yard  Goods 

1.  Materials 

Art  Linen 
Bird's-eye  Linen 
Butcher's  Linen 
Cambric 
Crash 
Damask 
Diaper  Linen 
Linen  Duck 
Glass  Toweling 
Handkerchief  Linen 
Holland  Duck 
Huckaback 
Linen  Lawn 
Pillow-Case  Linen 
Sheeting 
Toweling 

2.  Weaves 

Plain 
Twill 
Damask 

179 


l80        TO  SALESPEOPLE  AND  CUSTOMERS 

Bird's-eye 
Huck 

3.  Colors 
White 
Plain  Colors 
White  and  Colors 

B  —  Toilet  Linen 

1.  Finished  Towels 

Huckaback  (Hemmed,  Hemstitched,  or  Scal- 
loped) 

Damask    (Hemmed,   Hemstitched,  or  Scal- 
loped) 

Fancy  Weaves   (Hemmed,  Hemstitched,  or 

Scalloped) 
Turkish  Towels 
Turkish  Bath  Sheets 
Crash  Kitchen  Towels 
Glass  Towels 

2.  Toweling  by  the  Yard 

Damask 
Huckaback 
Crash 

Unbleached  Linen 
Half-Bleached  Linen 
Old  Bleach  Linen 
Glass  Toweling 
Cotton  Toweling 
Union  Goods 
Turkish  Toweling 
Terry  Cloth 

3.  Wash  Cloths 

Woven 
Knitted 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STOCK  181 

4.  Bath  Mats 

5.  Rubber  Sheeting 

C  —  Bed  Linen 

1.  Sheets  and  Pillow-Cases 

Plain  Hemmed 
Hemstitched 
Scalloped 
Embroidered 

2.  Blankets,  Comfortables,  and  Bed  Spreads 

(See    "Classification    of    Stock    of    Cotton 
Goods  Departments,"  pages  84-88) 

D  —  Table  Linen 

1.  Articles 

Table  Cloths  (By  the  yard  or  in  sets) 

Napkins  (By  the  dozen  or  in  sets) 

Tea  Cloths 

Tray  Cloths 

Doilies 

Silence  Cloths 

Asbestos  Pads 

2.  Weaves 

Plain 
Damask 

3.  Styles 

Hemmed 

Hemstitched 

Scalloped 

Drawn-Work 

Embroidered 

Fringed 


1 


l82         TO  SALESPEOPLE  AND  CUSTOMERS 

E — Fancy  Linens 

1.  Articles 

Dresser  Scarfs 

Sideboard  Covers 

Table  Covers 

Squares 

Cases  for  Handkerchiefs,  etc. 

Tea  Napkins 

Tray  Cloths 

Doilies 

Luncheon  Sets 

Japanese  Bungalow  Sets 

2.  Laces 

Filet  (R^al  and  Imitation) 

Cluny  (Real  and  Imitation) 

Torchon 

Duchess  (Real  and  Imitation) 

Renaissance 

Venise 

Arabian 

Point  de  Venise 

Filet 

3.  Embroidery 

Cut  Work 

French 

Irish 

Azure 

Appenzell 

German 

Madeira 

Drawn-Work 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STOCK 


183 


F  —  Handkerchiefs 


I.  Materials 

(a)  Linen 

Handkerchief  Linen 
Hand  Spun,  Machine  Spun 
Sheer,  Medium,  Heavy 

(b)  Cotton 

Cambric 

Lawn 

VoUe 

(c)  Silk 

Japanese 

China 

Crepe  de  Chine 

Pussy  Willow 

Chiffon 

Georgette 

(d)  Mixtures  ,  , .       . 

Shamrock  Lawn  (>4  Cotton,  K  L^nen) 

Irish  Lawn 

(e)  Laces 

Armenian 

Carick-ma-Cross 

Duchess 

Filet 

Point  Venise 

Princess 

Rose  Point 

Valenciennes 

2.  Styles 
Regular 
Mourning 
Glove 


i 


184        TO  SALESPEOPLE  AND  CUSTOMERS 

Peter  Thompson  (Squares,  >4  Squares) 
English  Squares 

3.  Sizes 

(a)  Regular 

Women's  (12  to  18  inches) 
Men's  (20  to  22  inches) 
Children's  (6  to  14  inches) 

(b)  Glove  (6  to  9  inches) 

4.  Decorations 

Hemstitching 
Drawn-Work 
Embroidery 

Madeira 

Appenzell 

Spanish 
Lace,  Tatting 
Tape  Border 
Cross-Bar 

Printing  and  Hand-Paintinff 
Rolled  Edge 

5.  Colors 

White 
Plain  Colors 
Two-Toned 

6.  Initials  and  Monograms 

Block 
Script 
Longfellow 


Appendix 

Leading  Cotton  Manufacturers  in  the  United 

States 


'  Acushnet   Mill    Corporation, 
New  Bedford,  Mass. 
Amoskeag   Mfg.    Co.,    Man- 
chester, N.  H. 


Sheetings,  Twills,  etc. 
Tickings,  Denims,  Sheetings, 

Cotton      Flannels,      Print 

Cloths,  Ginghams 


Anderson  Cotton  Mills,  South 

Carolina  Sheetings 

Androscoggin   Mills,   Lewis-     Sheetings,    Shirtings,   Jeans, 


ton.  Me. 
Arlington  Mills,  Lawrence, 
Mass. 


Seersuckers,  Quilts 
Combed   Cotton,   Mercerized 
Yams 


Avon    Mills    Co.,    Lewiston,     Cotton,  Linen  &  Fine  Turk- 
Me.  ish     Towels,     Crochet     & 

Satin   Bed   Spreads,    Bath 
Mats 
Baltic  Mills  Co.,  New  Lon- 
don, Conn.  Fine  Lawns,  Sateens 
Bates    Mfg.    Co.,    Lewiston,     Table  Damasks,  Seersuckers, 


Me. 


Quilts 


Berkshire  Cotton  Mfg.  Co.,     Organdies,       Mulls,       India 


Adams,  Mass. 
Berkeley     Mills,     Berkeley, 

R.  I. 
Blumenthal,    Sidney   &    Co., 

Shelton,  Conn. 
Booth   Mills,   Lowell,   Mass. 


Borden,  Richard,   Mfg.   Co., 
Fall  River,  Mass. 


Linens 

Cambrics,  Lawns,  Nainsooks, 
Fine  Cottons 

Velvets,  Plushes 
Dobby  &  Plain  Weaves,  Drill- 
ings, Sheetings 


Print  Ooths,  Fancy  Weaves 


185 


i86 


APPENDIX 


Border  City  Mfg.  Co.,  Fall 
River,  Mass. 
^  Bourne    Mills,    Fall    River, 
Mass. 

Brandon  Mills,  Greenville, 
S.  C. 

Bristol  Mfg.  Co.,  New  Bed- 
ford, Mass. 

Brookside  Mills,  Knoxville, 
Tenn. 

Butler  Mill,  New  Bedford, 
Mass. 

California  Cotton  Mills,  Cal. 
'>  Chadwick-Hoskins  Co.,  Char- 
lotte, N.  C. 
^  Clifton  Mfg.  Co.,  Qifton,  S. 

Continental  Mills,  Lewiston, 

Me. 
Dallas  Mfg.  Co.,  Ala. 
Darlington   Mfg.   Co.,   Dar- 
lington, S.  C. 
'  Dartmouth  Mfg.  Corp.,  New 

Bedford,  Mass. 
'  Davis     Mills,     Fall     River, 
Mass. 
Edwards  Mfg.  Co.,  Augusta, 
Me. 
'  Erwin  Cotton  Mills  Co.,  Dur- 
ham, N.  C. 

Everett  Mills,  Lawrence, 
Mass. 

Flint  Mills,  Fall  River,  Mass. 

Gosnold  Mills  Co.,  New  Bed- 
ford, Mass. 

Granite  Mills,  Fall  River, 
Mass. 


Sheetings,  Shirtings,  Crepes, 
Fancy  Cloths 

Twills,  Sateens,  etc. 

Sateens,  Sheetings 

Plain  &  Fancy  Fine  Combed 

Cotton  Goods 
Corduroys,    Velvets,    Ducks, 

Specialties 
Fine      Lawns,      Organdies, 

Sateens,  Fancy  Goods 
Warps 

Sheetings 

Sheetings,  Shirtings,  Twills, 

Sateens,  etc. 
Sheetings,    Drillings,    Print 

Cloths 
Brown  &  Bleached  Sheetings 

Shirtings,  Prints,  Sateens 
Fine   Cottons,   Plain,   Fancy 
&  Jacquard  Goods 

Fine  &  Fancy  Goods 
Sateens.     Flannels,     Twills, 

Pillow  Tubing 
Denims,  Brown  &  Bleached 

Sheetings,  Sheets  &  Pillow- 

Cases 
Ginghams,    Fine    Shirtings, 

Denims,  etc. 
Cotton  Goods 
Fine,  Plain  &  Fancy  Cotton 

Goods 

Plain  &  Fancy  Goods 


APPENDIX 


187 


Grinnell    Mfg.    Corp.,    New 

Bedford,  Mass. 
Henrietta     Mills,     Caroleen, 

N.  C. 
King,  John  P.  Mfg.  Co.,  At- 
lanta, Ga. 
*^ing  Philip  Mills,  Fall  River, 
Mass. 


Fine,  Plain  &  Fancy  Goods 
Sheetings,    Shirtings,    Drill- 
ings, Print  Cloths 
Sheetings,    Shirtings,    Drill- 
ings 

Lawns,  Cambrics 


Lancaster      Mills,      Clinton,     Ginghams,     Shirtings,    Fine 

Mass.  Dress  Goods 

Lincoln  Mfg.  Co.,  Fall  River, 


Mass. 

Locke  Cotton  Mills,  Concord, 
N.  C. 

Lockwood    Co.,    Waterville, 
Me. 

Lonsdale  Mills,  Lonsdale,  R. 
I. 
''Lorraine    Mfg.    Co..    Paw- 
tucket,  R.  I. 

Lyman  Mills,  Holyoke,  Mass. 

Manville    Co.,    Woonsocket, 

R.  I. 
Mars   Cotton  Mills,  Lowell, 

Mass. 
McLean,     A.     Co.,     Passaic 

Mills,  Passaic,  N.  J. 
Merrimack  Mfg.  Co.,  Ala. 
Nashua   Mfg.    Co.,   Nashua, 

N.  H. 
Naiunkeag  Steam  Cotton  Co., 

Salem,  Mass. 
Page  Mfg.  Co.,  New  Bedford, 

Mass. 
^Pacific      Mills,      Lawrence, 

Mass. 
^-Pacolet  Mfg.  Co.,  Pacolet,  S. 

C. 


Fine  Goods 
Plain  &  Fancy  Dress  Ging- 
hams 

Sheetings,  Shirtings 
Fine     Bleached     Sheetings, 
Silesias,  Twills 

Dress  Goods 

Lawns,  Fancy  Dress  Goods, 
Drillings 

Sheetings,  Shirtings,  Linings, 
Fancy  Weaves 

Denims,  Chambrays,  Ging- 
hams, Flannelettes,  etc. 

Linings,  Shade  Cloth, 
Napped  Goods 

Lawns,  Print  Cloths 

Blankets,  Cotton  Flannels, 
etc. 

Sheetings,  Jeans,  Sheets  & 
Pillow-Cases 

Fancy,  Plain,  Fine  Goods 

Prints  &  Fancy  Cottons 

Sheetings,  Drillingf 


I88 


APPENDIX 


Pequot      Mills,      Montville, 

Conn. 
Pilgrim    Mills,    Fall    River, 

Mass, 
Pocasset     Mfg.     Co.,     Fall 

River,  Mass. 
Ponemah     Mills,     Taftville, 

Conn. 
Potomska  Mills  Corp.,  New 

Bedford,  Mass. 
Pepperell   Mfg.    Co.,    Bidde- 

ford,  Me. 
Renfrew   Mfg.   Co.,   Adams, 

Mass. 

Sagamore    Mfg.    Co..     Fall 
River,  Mass. 
^  Slater,  S.  &  Sons,  Inc.,  Web- 
ster, Mass. 

Soule    Mill,    New    Bedford, 
Mass. 

Spartan  Mills,   Spartanburg, 

Stafford    Mills,    Fall    River, 

Mass. 
Stark     Mills     (International 

Cotton  Mills),  Manchester, 

N.  H. 

Tremont    &    Suffolk    Mills, 
Lowell,  Mass. 

Union  Mfg.  Co.,  Fall  River, 
Mass. 

Union-Buffalo     Mills     Co., 
Union  Mills,  N.  Y. 

Union   Wadding   Co.,    Paw- 
tucket,  R.  I. 


Sheetings 

Fine  Goods 

Sateens,  Twills,  Plain  Cloths 

Fine  and  Fancy  Goods 

Fancy  Goods,  Linons,  Lawns 
Sheetings,    Jeans,    Drillings, 

Sateens 
Colored      &      White      Wash 
Goods,  Table  Damasks,  Ta- 
ble Cloths 

Print  Cloths 

Sateens,     Silesias,    Percales, 
Sheetings 

Lawns,     Organdies,     Fancy 
Goods 

Brown      Sheetings,      Print 
Cloths 

Print  Cloths 

Sheetings,    Shirtings,    Drill- 
ings, Ducks,  Seamless  Bags 

Sheetings,  Drillings,  Canton 
Flannels,  Cotton  Blankets 

Print  Cloths 

Print  Cloths,  Sheetings 

Wadding,  Batting 


APPENDIX 


189 


Utica  Mills,  Utica,  N.  Y. 

Utica  Steam  &  Mohawk  Val- 
ley Cotton  Mills,  Utica,  N. 
Y. 

Victor  Mfg.  Co.,  Greer,  S.  C. 

^'Wamsutta  Mills,  New  Bed- 
ford, Mass. 

Warren  Mfg.  Co.,  Warren, 
R.  I. 

White  Oak  Cotton  Mills, 
Greensboro,  N.  C. 

Whitman  Mills,  New  Bed- 
ford, Mass. 

York  Mfg.  Co.,  Saco,  Me. 


Sheeting! 


Sheetings,  Shirtings 
Striped  &  Checked  Madras, 
Dimities,  Lawns 

Bleached  &  Brown  Sheetings, 

Shirtings,  Lawns,  Sateens 

Lawns,  Sateens,  Fancy  Goods 

Denims 

Plain  &  Fancy  Goods 
Ginghams,     Denims,     Dress 
Goods 


Leading  Linen  Manufacturers* 


John  S.  Brown  &  Sons,  Ltd. 
Ireland  Bros. 
Hillsborough  Linen  Co. 
James  Mathewson  &  Son 
Hay  &  Robertson 
R.  E.  Walker,  Reid  &  Co. 


Belfast,  Ireland 
Belfast,  Ireland 
Belfast,  Ireland 
Dunfermline,  Scotland 
Dunfermline,  Scotland 
Dunfermline,  Scotland 


Bcx>Ks  FOR  Reference 

Spinning  and  Weaving 

Cotton  Spinning,  R.  Marsden.    Macmillan,  $1.75 
Cotton  Weaving,  R.  Marsden.    Macmillan,  $3 
Ongin  of  Inventions,  O.  T.  Mason.     Scribner,  $1.50 
Practical  Treatise  on  Weaving  and  Designing  of  Textile 
Fabrics,  T.  R.  Asherhurst.     (Out  of  Print) 

•Owing  to   th«   European   conditions  a   complete   list   of  linen   manu- 
facturers cannot  be  obtained. 


If 


1 1 


190 


APPENDIX 


Woman's  Share  in  Primitive  Culture,  O.  T.  Mason.    Apple- 
ton,  $1.75 

Textiles  and  Textile  Fibers 

Cotton  Fabrics  Glossary,  A.  Bennet.    F.  P.  Bennet,  $3 
Encyclopedia  of  Dry  Goods,  G.  S.  Cole.     (Out  of  Print) 
Fibers  Used  in  Textile  and  Allied  Industries,  Mitchell  and 

Prideaux.    Van  Nostrand,  $3 
Flax  for  Seed  and  Fiber,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  5  cents. 
Household  Textiles,  Charlotte  McGibbs.    Whitcomb  and  Bar- 
rows. $1.25 
How  We  Are  Clothed,  J.  F.  Chamberlain.  Macmillan,  40  cents 
Methods  of  Textile  Chemistry,  F.  Dannerth.    Wiley,  $2 
Story  of  the  Cotton  Plant.    F.  Wilkinson.    Appleton 
Textiles,  A.  F.  Barker.  Van  Nostrand,  $2 
Textiles,  Wm.  H.  Dooley.     Heath,  $1 
Textiles,  Paul  H.  Nystrom.    Appleton,  $1.50 
Textiles,  Woolman  and  McGowan.    Macmillan,  $2 
Textiles  and  Clothing,  K.  H.  Watson.    Am.  School  of  Home 

Economics,  $2 
Textile  Fibers,  J.  M.  Matthews.    Wiley,  $4 
The  Story  of  Textiles,  Perry  Walton.    J.  S.  Lawrence,  $3 


Dyeing 

Dyes  and  Dyeing,  C.  E.  Pellew.    McBride  Nast  &  Co.,  $2 
Laboratory  Manual  of  Dyeing  and  Textile  Chemistry.    J.  M. 
Matthews.     Wiley,  I3.50 

Laundering 

Approved  Methods  for  Home  Laundering,  Mary  Beali  Vail. 

Procter  and  Gamble  Co. 
Laundering,  L.  R.  Balderston,  1224  Cherry  St.,  Phil.,  Pa.  $1.25 
The  Practical  Dry  Cleaner,  Scourer,  and  Garment  Dyer,  W.  T. 

Brannt,  Baird,  $2.50 


ABBItDBBN,  93 

Acid  Test,  113 
Adulterations. 

cotton,  39 

linen,  no 

tests,  164 
American  Cotton,  s,  10 
Aniline  Dyes, 

bluing.  1 75 

discovery,  53 
Animal  Dyes,  51 
Arkwright,  Richard,  18 
Artificial     Dyes      (See 

dyes") 
Art  Linen,  us 
Asbestos  Pads,  136 
Austrian  Linen.  93 


Baling  of  Cotton,  10 
Bast  Fiber,  Definition,  94 
Batiste.  3,  61,  8s,  130 
Bedding, 
bed  spreads, 
classification,  88 
description.  131 
sizes,  133 
blankets, 
description.  X38 
sizes.  133 
summer,  88,  139 
classification,  88 
comfortables, 
classification.  88 


INDEX 

BKDDiHG—Continued 
comfortables — Continu9d 
description,  130 
sizes.  132 
counterpanes, 
crochet,  131 
description,  130 
Marseilles,  131,  133 
mattress  pads,  88,  137 
mattress  protectors,  88.  127 
pillow  cases  and  slips. 
description,  128 
linen,  118 
sizes,  13a 
"Aniline  tubing,  3,  84 

quilts,  139 
sheets,  136 
sizes,  133 
sizes.  132 
Bed  Spreads  (See  "Bedding") 
Beetling, 
cotton,  35 
linen.  103 
Belgian  Linbn,  93. 143,  149 
Bird's-Eyb  Linen,  1x5 
Blankets  and  Comfortables  (Sm 

"Bedding") 
Bleaching, 
chemical,  103 
definition,  34 
grades,  X03 
grass,  103 
Block  Printing,  57 
Breaking. 
cotton,  30 
flax,  95.  97 

Brokers,  Cotton,  zo,  za.  13 
191 


1 

I 


192       •  INDEX 


Brushing,  35 
Buckram,  3,  77.  86 
Butchers'  Linsn,  115 


Calbndbring,  35,  38,  103,  i6a 
Calico,  3,  56,  61,  84 
Cambric.  3t  62,  77,  78,  84,  88 

linen.  116 
Canton  Flannbl,  3,  62,  84,  87 
Canvas,  3,  78,  86 
Carding, 

by  machines,  ai 

hand  cards,  16 

Jacquard  loom,  30 

process,  21 
Cartwright,  Rev.  Dr.,  29 
Centers  of  Industry, 

cotton,  83 

handkerchiefs,  149 

linen,  91 
Challis,  s6,  62,  130 
Chambray,  63 
Cheese-Cloth,  3.  63,  130 
Chemical  Bleaching,  103 
Cheviot,  3,  8s 
Chiffon,  3,  8s 
China  Clay,  3s 
China  Grass,  ids 
Chintz,  56,  130 
Chrome  Yellow,  52 
Classification  of  Materials  (See 

"  Materials,       classification       and 

names") 
Cloth  Beam,  Hand  Loom,  28 
Coal     Tar     Dyes     (See     "Aniline 

dyes") 
Cochineal,  51 
Color, 

artificial  light,  46 

fading,  I7S 

harmony,     45     (See     also     "Silk 
Manual") 


Combing,  21 

Comfortables  (See  "Bedding") 

Congo  Red,  sj 

Corduroy,  3,  63,  8s 

Cotton, 

American,  s 

baling,  10 

centers  of  industry,  83 

cultivation  of.  4,  8 

damask,  36,  6s 

dealers  and  brokers,  10 

Egyptian,  6 

exchange,  12 

fiber  (See  "Vegetable  fiber") 

finishing  processes,  34 

ginning,  9 

grading,  11 

history,  82 

Indian,  7 

invention  of  cotton  gin,  19 

long  staple,  s 

marketing,  10 

materials  (See  also  "  Material! ") 
mercerization,  36 

mixtures,  adulterations,  etc.,  39,  no 

Peruvian,  6 

picking,  8 

preparation  of.  20 

properties,  7 

Sea  Island,  f 

services  of  supply,  s 

short  staple,  s 

spinning,  14 

taffeta,  36 

Upland,  s 
Cotton  Gin,  Invention,  10,  19 
Cotton  Wadding  (See  "Wadding") 
Counterpanes  (See  "Bedding") 
Counts  of  Yarn,  24,  33 
Crash,  116 

Russia,  116 

suiting,  116 
CRfiPE,  3.  S6,  64.  85 

Japanese,  3.  86 


index 


193 


CRtPE  de  Chine,  3,  8s 
Crepon  (See  "  Crepe  ") 
Crinoline,  3.  78.  86 
Crochet  Counterpanes,  131 
Crompton,  Samuel,  19 
Crompton's  Mule,  19 
Cultivation  of  Cotton  Plant,  4 
Cutch,  52 


Damask, 
cotton,  36,  65 
linen,  116 
towels,  123 
Damp  Spinning,  99 
Denim,  3,  65,  84 
Departments  of  Stores, 

divisions  of  cotton  goods,  2 
Design,  47,  S7,  138,  148     (See  also 
"Silk  Manual") 
in  handkerchiefs,  148 
in  table  linen,  141 
difficulties,  138 
lengthening  pieces,  140 
method,  139 
standard  patterns,  138 
printed,  57 
Dextrin,  60 
Diaper  Linen,  117 
Dimity,  3.  56,  65,  85,  132 
Direct  Cotton  Dyes,  53 
Direct  Printing,  58 
Discharge  Printing,  58,  59 
Distaff,  16 
Doilies, 
description,  135 
sizes,  137 
Domestics,  Classification,  3,  84 
Doubling,  22 
Drawing,  14,  16,  22,  99 
Drawn  Work,  14s 
Dress  Goods,  Classification,  3,  85 
Dressing,  34 


Drilling,  3.  77,  79.  86 
Drying,  Flax,  95,  97 
Dry  Spinning,  100 
Dublin,  92 
Duck, 
cotton,  65 
linen.  117 
Dundee,  92 
Dunferline,  92 
Dyeing  Methods.  55 
mordant,  54 
piece,  34,  55 
printing,  34 
process,  56 
raw  cotton,  ss 
yam.  55 
Dyes, 
aniline,  52 
animal,  51 
cochineal,  51 
Congo  red,  53 
direct  cotton,  53 
indigo,  51 
lac.  51 
logwood,  51 
madder,  51 
mineral,  52 
natural,  50 
sulphur,  54 
Tyrian  purple.  51 
vat,  54 
vegetable,  51 


Egyptian  Cotton,  6 
Eiderdown,  87 
Embossing,  35,  41 
Embroidered  Linbn, 

Madeira,  14s 

Swiss,  144 
Embroidery,  144 
Ends,  31,  33 
English  Linen,  93 


I 


i 


194 

Exchange  Cotton,  la 

P 

Fabrics  (See  "Materials") 
Fancy  Linens, 

classification,  143,  i8a 

imitations.  145 

Japanese  sets,  145 
Farmer's  Satin,  79 
Fiber  (See  "Vegetable  fibers") 
Filling  (See  "Weft") 
Finishing  Processes, 

cotton,  34 

linen,  loi 
Flannelette,  42,  56,  66,  87 
Flannels,  Cotton,  87 
Flax, 

breaking,  95,  97 

cultivation,  94 

drying,  95,  97 

harvesting,  94 

plant,  94 

retting,  95,  96 

rippling,  95 

scutching,  95,  97 

wheel,  17 
Flaxon.  3,  42,  8s 
Flier,  17,  19 
Flying  Shuttle,  28 
Foulard,  36 

French  Linen,  92.  143,  149 
Fustic,  52 
Future  Sales,  13 


Gaberdine,  3,  85 

Galatea,  3.  66,  84 

German  Linen,  92,  122,  143.  149 

Ghent,  92 

Gigging,  3S 

Gingham,  3.  66,  84,  86 

Ginning  of  Cotton,  9 


INDEX 


Glass  Toweling,  117 

Glycerin,  34 

Grades  of  Blbachinc,  103 

Grading  of  Cotton,  h 

Grass  Bleaching.  loa 

Great  Wheel,  17 

Gum.  3S,  60,  I  Id 

Gum  Arabic,  60 

Gum  Tragacanth.  60 


Hackling  Flax,  98 
Hand  Cards,  16 
Hand  Loom,  27 
Hand  Spinning,  15 
Handkerchiefs, 

description,  146 

design,  148 

grades,  147 

history,  149 

linen,  117,  171 

silk,  ISO 

Swiss,  149 
Hargeaves,  Jambs,  18 
Harness, 

hand  loom,  48 

power  loom,  29,  32 
Hbathbrbloom,  3,  86 
Heddlbs,  Hand  Loom,  28 
Hemp,  ios,  108 

Japanese,  108 

Manila,  109 
History  of, 

cotton.  82 

linen,  isz 
Holland, 

duck,  179 

linen,  118 
Holt,  Samuel,  ts,  laa 
Huckaback, 

cotton,  67 

linen,  118 


index 


195 


Imitations  of, 

fancy  linens,  145 

linen,  40 

silk,  3.  36 

wool,  41 
India  Linen,  3,  67,  8s 
Indian  Cotton,  7 
Indian  Head.  67 
Indigo,  si.  174 
Interlinings,  3,  79,  86 
Irish  Linen.  92.  102,  122,  144, 
Iron  Buff.  S2 
Italian  Cloth.  79 


Jaconet.^  67 

Jacquard,  Joseph  Marie,  29 

Jacquard  Loom,  29  (See  also 

Manual") 
Japanese, 

crSpe,  3,  86 

hemp,  108 

linen,  143 
Japanese  Bungalow  Sets,  14s 
Jersey  Wheel,  17 
Jute,  ids,  106 


Kay,  John.  38 
Khaki.  3.  68,  86 


Lac,  51 

Laces,  174.  i 8a 

Laundering, 
best  methods,  67 
bluing,  174 
mangling,  177 
setting  colors,  176 


Laundering — Continued 

soap,  170 

starch,  172 
Lawn,  3,  36.  s6,  69,  84.  8$,  86 

linen,  118,  179 

Persian,  8s 
Limerick,  92 
Line,  Fibers,  99 
Linen, 

Austrian,  93 

Belgian,  92 

colored,  163 
149  cultivation  of  flax  plant,  94 

display,  89 

divisions  of  department,  90 

dyes,  94 

English.  93 

fiber  (See  "Vegetable  fibers") 

finishing  processes,  loi 

French,  92,  143,  149 
"Silk  German.  9a,  122,  143,  149 

history,  151 

India,  3,  67.  85 

Irish,  92,  102,  122,  144.  149 

lawn  (See  "Lawn") 

line,  99 

manufacture,  98 

materials,  118 

properties,  93 

Russian,  93 

Scotch,  93 

sources  of  supply,  91 

toilet,  120 

tow,  99 

United  States,  91,  laa.  153 
LiNENE,  42 
Linings, 

classification,  3,  86 

description,  77 

varieties,  77 
LiNON,  42.  69 
Linseed  Oil,  91 
Logwood,  sx 
Long  Cloth,  3.  69,  94 


196 


INDEX 


Long  Staple  Cotton,  s 
Loom, 

hand,  26,  37 

Jacquard,  39 

parts.  38 

power,  39 


Maddkk,  51 
Madeira, 

embroidery,  145 

linen,  91 
Madras.  3,  70,  85 
Mangling,  177 
M  anilaHbmp,  109 
Manufacture  of  Cotton,  14 
Manufacturers  , 

cotton,  185 

linen.  189 
Marketing  of  Cotton,  10 
Marquisette,  3,  70,  85,  86 
Marseilles  Counterpanes,  131,  133 
Materials. 

cotton, 
classification  and  names.  3,  36. 

43,84 
description,  61 
uses.  i6s 

durability.  31 

laundering,  175 

linen. 

classification  and  names,  90.  I30, 

133,  143 
description.  115 
shrinking,  170,  175 
tests.  42,  iia 
Mattress. 
pads,  137 
protectors,  88,  127 
Mercer,  John,  36 
Mercbrization, 
discorery,  36 
process,  37 


Mercerized  Fiber.  43.  44 

Mercerized  Goods.  3,  36,  77,  161 

Mexican  Drawn  Work,  14s 

Middling  (See  "Grades  of  Cotton") 

Mineral  Dyks.  53 

Mixtures,  39.  tio 

Mordant  Dyeing.  54 

Moreen,  3,  86 

Mosquito  Netting,  70 

Mucilage,  35 

Mule,  Crompton's.  xf 

Mule  Spinning.  23 

Mull,  3,  70.  «s.  86 

Muslin.  3,  56,  71,  84 


Nainsook.  3,  71.  84 

Names  of  Materials  (See  "Mater- 
ials, classification  and  names") 

Napkins. 
description,  134 
sizes,  137 

Napping,  35.  41 

Natural  Dyes,  so 

Near-Silk,  3.  42,  87 

Novelties,  85,  86,  87 


Old  Bleach  Liken,  hi 
Organdy,  3.  56,  71.  8s 
osnaburg,  71 
Outing  Flannel,  43.  73,  87 


Patchwork  Quilts.  i«9 
Percale,  3.  S6,  72,  84 
Percaline.  3.  35.  77,  19.  87 
Perkin,  W.  H.,  S2 
Persian  Lawn,  8s 
Peruvian  Cotton,  6 
Picking  and  Scutching,  ax 


INDEX 


197 


Piers,  31,  33 

Piece  Dyeing,  34.  SS 

Pile  Weave,  33 

Pillow  Cases  (See  "Bedding") 

Pillow  Slips  (See  "Bedding") 

Pique,  3,  73.  85 

Poplin,  3,  36,  73.  8s 

Power  Loom,  39,  30 

Preparation  of  Flax  Fiber,  95 

Printing,  34,  56 

block.  57 

designs.  57 

direct,  58 

discharge,  58,  59 

process,  56 

resist.  58,  59 

thickened  dyes,  59 
Properties  of  Linen,  93 
Prussian  Blue.  52.  i75 
Purchasers.  Suggestions  to,  160 


Quilted  Lining.  3.  80.  87 
Quilts.  129 

R 

Ramie,  105.  106 

Ramie  Linen,  105 

Ratine.  73 

Reed.  Hand  Loom.  28 

Resist  Printing,  58,  59 

Retting,  Flax,  95,  96 

Ring  Spinning.  23 

Rippling.  95 

Roughing  Flax,  98 

Roving  (See  "Drawing") 

Rubber    Sheeting    (See    "Notions 

.    Manual") 

Russian  Linen,  93 


S 


Sales, 
future.  13 
spot,  13 


Sateen.  3,  36,  41.  43,  77.  80,  84.  87, 

130 
Saxony  Wheel,  17 
schrbinerizing,  35.  38 
Scotch  Flannel.  87 
Scotch  Linen,  92,  123,  149 
Scutching,  31.  9s,  97 
Sea  Island  Cotton,  s.  10 
Shantung.  36 
Shed,  Hand  Loom,  38 
Sheeting.  84,  127 

linen,  119 

rubber  (See  "Notions  Manual") 
Sheets  (See  "Bedding") 
Shirting.  73 
Short  Staple  Cotton,  5 
Shuttle.  Flying.  28 
Shuttle,  Hand  Loom.  28 
Silence  Cloth.  136 
Silesia.  3.  77.  80.  97 
SiLKOLiNE.  36.  130 
Silver  Bleach,  103 
Singeing,  3S 
Sizes,  Bed  Linen,  13a 
Sizes  op  Yarn,  34 
Sizing,  34.  42.  no,  in 
Slater,  Samuel,  30 
Sliver,  si,  99 
Slubbing,  23 
Soap,  170 
Sorting  Flax,  99 
Spindle,  16,  Z7 
Spinning, 

by  hand,  15 

by  machinery.  18 
Spinning  Jersey.  18 
Spinning  Machines,  18 
Spinning  Processes, 

cotton.  20 

flax, 
damp  spinning,  99 
dry  spinning.  100 
line  spinning,  98 
wet  spinning.  99 


I 

t 


198 


IKDEX 


Spinning  Whbbls,  17 
Spot  Sales.  13 
Spreading  Flax,  99 
Starch.  3S,  60.  no,  17a 
Substantive  Dyes.  153 
Substitutes  for  Soap.  17a 
Sulphur  Dybs,  54 
Swiss,  3.  35,  74.  8S,  86 

embroidered  linen.  143,  144 

handktrchiefs.  149 


Table  Cloths. 

description,  133 

sizes.  137 
Table  Covers,  143 
Table  Linen, 

classification,  133 

design  (See  "  Design  in  table  linea  ") 

doilies.  135,  137 

napkins.  134.  137 

silence  cloths.  136 

standard  sizes.  137 

table  cloths,  133,  137,  138 

tea  cloths,  X35 

tray  cloths,  135 
Tarlatan, 74 
Tea  Cloths,  135 
Tbntbring,  35 
Terry  Cloth.  74,  119 
Tests, 

acid,  113 

cotton  materials,  4t 

linen,  113 

microscope,  43.  113 
Textile  Study.  Historic  Intkrbst, 

164 
Thickened  Dybs,  59 
Ticking,  75 
Toilet  Linen, 

classification,  I30 

design.  123 

finished  towels,  lao 


Toilet  Linen — Coniinmd 

toweling,  lao 
Tow.  99 
Toweling.  119 
Towels, 

classification,  120 

cotton,  i6a 

damask,  123 

definition,  X2i 

sources,  laa 

Turkish,  122 
Tray  Cloths.  135 
Tub  Silk,  36 
Tucking,  75 
Turkish  Red  Dye.  5a 
Turkish    Towels.    lat    (Sm    also 

"Terry  cloth") 
TUSSUR.  36 

Tyrian  Purplb,  sz 


UmoN  Goods.  39.  no 
Upholstery  Goods.  36 
Upland  Cotton.  5 
Upright  Loom.  27 


Varieties  op  Cotton,  f  •  zo 
Vat  Dyes.  54 
Vegetable  Dyes,  51 
Vegetable  Fibers. 

China  grass.  105 

cotton.  4.  6.  7.  9.  IX.  15.  43,  i^ 

flax,  43,  94.  9I.  114,  161 

hemp.  Z05,  lot 

jute.  105.  X06 

ramie*.  105.  106 

varieties,  105 
Velveteen,  4a.  75 

VlYELLA,  87 

Voile.  3,  36,  76.  «s,  »6 


i 


INDEX 


199 


W 

Wadding.  81. 16,  ia9. 130 
Warp,  a6,  31 
Warp  Beam,  a8 

yams.  a4 
Wash  Cloths.  laa,  x8o 
Water  Frame,  19 
Weaves,  3a,  84,  86,  87 
Weaving, 

history  of,  a6 

machinery,  lox  (See  also  "Loom") 

processes.     31     (See     also     "Silk 
Manual ") 


Weft.  a6.  31 

yams,  34 
Wet  Spinning.  99 

White  Goods.  Classification.  3.  8s 
Whitney.  Eli.  19 
Whorl.  16 

WiGAN,  81 


Yarn  Dyeing.  s5 
Yarns. 

sizes  or  counts,  34 

warp,  24 

weft,  34 


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